Read the text and answer the questions

1. When is an antibiotic tested in human beings?

2. What are the steps of antibiotics production?

3. How are semisynthetic antibiotics produced?

Testing and Producing Antibiotics

Testing. Every year, scientists test thousands of natural and chemi­cally modified microbial substances for potential use as antibiotics. First, these substances are tested against harmful microbes or cancer cells that have been grown either in test tubes or on laboratory plates.

A substance that shows strong antibiotic activity against patho­genic microbes or cancer cells is tested extensively in laboratory ani­mals. Then, if it produces no harmful effects in the animals, the anti­biotic is tested in human beings. In the United States, human testing must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). If the drug proves to be safer and more effective than antibiotics already being used, it is submitted for approval to the FDA. Finally, if the FDA approves the antibiotic, drug firms begin to produce it commer­cially.

Antibiotics production involves several steps. First, cultures of the antibiotic-producing microbes are grown in flasks and then transferred to huge fermentation vats. The microbes multiply rapidly in the vats because the environment is controlled to stimulate their growth. After fermentation, the antibiotic substance is extracted from the culture and purified.

Some natural antibiotic substances are modified chemically to produce semisynthetic antibiotics. Many such drugs are more effective than the natural antibiotics from which they came.

Drug companies conduct special tests on antibiotics during and after production to ensure their quality. Finally, the purified antibiotic substances are made into pills, liquids, and ointments for medical use.

Text 6

Read the text and arrange the events in the chronological order.

— Robert Koch developed methods of isolating and growing various kinds of bacteria.

— A new antibiotic called streptomycin was discovered.

— Alexander Fleming observed that a mold of the genus Penicilliumproduced a substance that destroyed bacteria.

— Louis Pasteur discovered that bacteria spread infectious diseases.

— Ernst B. Chain and Howard W. Florey developed a method of extracting and purifying small amounts of penicillin.

History of Antibiotics

For more than 2,500 years, people have treated certain skin infec­tions with molds that form antibiotics. However, modern scientific study of these substances did not begin until the late 1800s. At that time, great French chemist Louis Pasteur discovered that bacteria spread infectious diseases. Then Robert Koch, a German bacteriolo­gist, developed methods of isolating and growing various kinds of bacteria. Koch also identified specific bacteria that cause certain dis­eases.

Scientists,then began working to develop drugs that could destroy pathogenic microbes, but the substances they produced proved either ineffective or dangerous. A historic breakthrough came in 1928, when British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming observed that a mold of the genus Penicilliumproduced a substance that destroyed bacteria. He called the substance penicillin. Fleming recognized the potential use of penicillin in treating disease, but difficulty in extracting it from the mold hindered further experimentation.

In the late 1930s, two British scientists, Ernst B. Chain and How­ard W. Florey, developed a method of extracting and purifying small amounts of penicillin. The first successful medical treatment with peni­cillin occurred in 1941, when a British policeman suffering from bac­terial blood poisoning received the drug. But the small supply of peni­cillin prevented physicians from using the drug extensively. A high-yielding type of Penicilliummold was discovered in 1943, and penicillin production increased greatly.

In the early 1940s, American bacteriologist Selman A. Waksman tested about 10,000 types of soil bacteria for antibiotic activity. In 1943, he discovered that some Streptomyces,a type of fungi, produced a substance that had strong antibiotic properties. A new antibiotic called streptomycin resulted from Waksman's research.

Thousands of antibiotic substances have been found in the nature or produced chemically. However, relatively few antibiotic substances have proven to be safe and effective. In addition, certain types of pathogenic microbes have acquired resistance to some antibiotics.

Appedix.

Додаток.

Перелік деяких хімічних елементів

Букви латинського алфавіту, що позначають назви елементів,, читаються відповідно до назв англійського алфавіту.

AG Argentum = silver— срібло

AL Aluminium — алюміній

AU Aurum = gold— золото

В Boron — бор

BK Berkelium— берк(е)лій

С Carbon— вуглець

СА Calcium— кальцій

CD Cadmium — кадмій

CL Chlorine— хлор

CR Chromium = chrome — хром

CU Cuprum =copper — мідь

FE Ferrum = iron — залізо

GE Germanium — германій

H Hydrogen — водень

HE Helium — гелій

HG Hydrargyrum = mercury — ртуть

J, I Iodine — йод

К Potassium — калій

MD Mendelevium — менделевій

MG Magnesium — магній

MN Manganese — марганець

N Nitrogen — азот

NA Natrium = Sodium — натрій

N1 Nickel — нікель

О Oxygen — кисень

P Phosphorus — фосфор

PB Plumbum = lead — свинець

PT Platinum — платина

RA Radium — радій

S Sulphur —сірка

SN Stannum = tin — олово

TH Thorium — торій

ТІ Titanium — титан

U Uranium — уран

ZN Zinc(um) — цинк

Англійський тлумачний термінологічний словник для спеціальності «Фармація»

Wordpart of speech	Meaning	Example sentence
Abnormaladj	not normal for the human body	This amount of weight loss is abnormalfor women your age.
Achenoun/verb	pain that won't go away	I can't sleep because my knees achein the night.
Acuteadj	quick to become severe/bad	We knew the baby was coming right away because the woman's labour pains were acute.
Allergynoun allergicadj	a body's abnormal reaction to certain foods or environmental substances (eg causes a rash)	Your son is extremely allergicto peanuts.
Ambulance noun	emergency vehicle that rushes people to a hospital	We called the ambulancewhen Josh stopped breathing.
Amnesianoun	a condition that causes people to lose their memory	I can't remember the accident because I had amnesia.
Amputation noun amputateverb	permanent removal of a limb	We had to amputatehis leg because the infection spread so quickly.
Anaemianoun anaemicadj	occurs when the body doesn't have enough red blood cells	I have low energy because I am anaemic.
Antibiotics noun	medication that kills bacteria and cures infections	My throat infection went away after I started the antibiotics.
Antidepressant noun	medication that helps relieve anxiety and sadness	The antidepressantshelped me get on with life aftef Lucy died.
Appointment noun	a scheduled meeting with a medical professional	I've made you an appointmentwith a specialist in three week's time.
Arthritisnoun	a disease that causes the joints to become swollen and crippled	My grandmother can't knit anymore because the arthritisin her hands is so bad.
Asthma (attack) noun	a condition that causes a blockage of the airway and makes it difficult for a person to breathe	I carry an inhaler when I run because I have asthma.
Bacterianoun	a disease-causing organism	To prevent the spread of bacteriait is important that nurses wash their hands often.
Bedsorenoun	wounds that develop on a patient's body from lying in one place for too long	If you don't get up and take a walk, you will develop painful bedsores.
Benignadj	not harmful (not cancerous)	We're hoping that the tests will show that the lump in your breast is benign.
Biopsy noun	removal of human tissue in order to conduct certain medical tests	The biopsy ruled out a number of illnesses.
Blood count noun	the amount of red and white blood cells a person has	You will be happy to know that your blood count is almost back to normal.
Blood donor noun	a person who gives blood to a blood bank or other person	Blood donors have to answer questions about their medical history.
Blood pressure noun	the rate at which blood flows through the body (high/low)	High blood pressure puts you at risk of having a heart attack.
Brace noun	a device that holds injured body parts in place	You will probably always have to wear a brace on your ankle when you jog.
Breech adj	position of an unborn baby in which the feet are down and the head is up	We thought it was going to be a breech birth, but the baby turned himself around.
Broken adj	a bone that is divided in two or more pieces as a result of an injury	We thought it was just a sprain, but it turned out his leg was broken.
Bruise nounbruised adj	injured body tissue that is visible underneath the skin	The woman was badly bruised when she came into the emergency room.
Caesarean section, C-sectionnoun	procedure that involves removing a baby from its mother through an incision in the woman's lower abdomen	The baby was so large that we had to perform a Caesarean section.
Cancer noun	disease caused by the uncontrollable growth of cells	There are many different options when it comes to treating cancer.
Cardio­pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) noun	restoring a person's breath and circulation	You saved your brother's life by performing CPR.
Cast noun	a hard bandage that is wrapped around a broken bone to keep it in place	My leg was in a cast for graduation.
Chapel, chapeline noun	a place where loved ones can go to pray for a patient's recovery; a priest who visits patients in the hospital	If you want a place to pray, the chapel is on the third floor.
Chemotherapy noun	type of treatment used on cancer patients	My mother has already had three rounds of chemotherapy.
Chicken pox noun	a virus commonly contracted by children, characterized by itchy spots all over the body	It is best to get chickenpox as a child so that you don't get it worse as an adult.
Coronernoun	a person who determines the cause of death after a person dies	We only call the coroner if we think a death is suspicious.
Critical condition noun	requiring immediate and constant medical attention	You can't see her right now; she's in critical condition.
Crutches noun	objects that people with injured legs or feet use to help them walk	I'd rather hop on one foot than use crutches.
Cystnoun	a sac in the body-tissue filled with fluid (sometimes diseased)	We're going to remove the cysts just to be on the safe side.
Deaf adj	unable to hear	The accident left the patient both deaf and blind.
Deficiency noun	a lack of something necessary for one's health	The tests show that you have an iron deficiency.
Dehydrated adj	in need of water	It is easy for the elderly to become dehydrated in this heat.
Dementia noun	loss of mental capacity	It is hard to watch a loved one suffering with dementia.
Diabetes noun	type of disease typically involving insulin deficiency	People with diabetes have to constantly check their blood sugar levels.
Diagnosis noun	medical explanation of an illness or condition	The doctor would prefer to share the diagnosis with the patient himself.
Discomfort noun	experiencing pain	This pain medication should relieve some of your discomfort.
Diseasenoun	a medical disorder that is harmful to a person's health	I understand that this disease runs in your family.
Dislocated adj	when a bone is temporarily separated from its joint	You will have to wear a sling because of your dislocated shoulder.
Emergency noun	a medical problem that needs immediate attention	It is important that children know which number to dial in case of an emergency.
ER (emergency room) noun	the hospital room used for treating patients with immediate and life-threatening injuries	The child was rushed into the ER after he had a severe allergic reaction to a bee sting.
External adj	on the outside	This cream is for external use only. Do not get it near your ears, eyes, or mouth.
False negative noun adj	a test that incorrectly comes back negative	We had two false negative pregnancy tests, so we didn't know we were having a baby.
Family history noun	medical background of a person's family members	The doctor was concerned about my family history of skin cancer.
Fatal adj	causing death	The doctor made a fatal error when he wrote the wrong prescription.
Fever nounfeverish adj	higher than normal body temperature	He is very feverish, and his temperature is near danger point.
Flu (influenza) noun	many types of respiratory or intestinal infections passed on through a virus	People who have the flu should not visit hospital patients.
Fracturenoun fracturedadj	broken or cracked bone	Your wrist is fractured and needs a cast.
Germnoun	a micro-organism, especially one that causes disease	Flowers are not allowed in the ward to avoid the risk of germs being brought in.
Geneticadj	a medical condition or physical feature that is passed on in the family	The disease is part genetic and part environmental.
Growthnoun	a ball of tissue that grows bigger than normal, either on or under the skin	That growth on your shoulder is starting to worry me.
Heart attack noun	instance in which blood stops pumping through the heart	People who smoke are at greater risk of having a heart attack.
HIVnoun	the virus that infects the human T-cells and leads to AIDS	HIV can be passed down from the mother to her fetus.
Hivenoun	bumps that appear on the surface of the skin during an allergic reaction	I broke out in hives after I ate that potato casserole.
Illnessnounilladj	general term for any condition that makes a person feel sick for a certain period of time	Her illness went away when she started eating better.
Immune system noun	the parts of the body that fight diseases, infections, and viruses	You can't have visitors because your immune system is low.
Immunizationnounimmunizeverb	an injection that protects against a specific disease	Babies are immunized three times in their ffrst year.
Incisionnoun	cut in the body made during surgery	I had to have stitches to close the incision.
Inconclusive adj	unclear	We have to do more x-rays because the first ones were inconclusive.
Infantnoun	young baby	The nurse will demonstrate how to bathe an infant.
Infectionnouninfectedadj	diseased area of the body (viral or bacterial)	The wound should be covered when you swim to prevent it from becoming infected.
Inflamedadj	appearance (red and swollen) of an injured body part	My right ankle was so inflamed it was twice the size of my left one.
Injurynoun	damage to the body	Her injuries were minor; just a few cuts and bruises.
Intensive care unit (ICU) noun	section of the hospital where patients get constant attention and doctors rely on specialized equipment	She will remain in the ICU until she can breathe on her own.
Internal adj	under the skin, inside the organs	The doctors will be monitoring her for any internal bleeding.
Itchy adj	feeling discomfort on the skin's surface	If you are allergic to this medication your skin will get red and itchy.
IV noun	a tube that pumps liquids and medication into a patient's body	The toddler was so dehydrated that the doctor decided to get him on an IV.
Lab results noun	tests that come back from a laboratory and help doctors make a diagnosis	The lab results have come in and you are free to go home.
Lab (laboratory) noun	place where samples of blood/ urine etc. are taken for testing	I'll take these samples down to the lab on my way out.
Life support noun	a machine that keeps patients alive by helping them breathe	The woman has severe brain damage and is currently on life support.
Life-threatening adj	when injuries and conditions are extremely serious	The victim was shot in two places but the bullet wounds are not life-threatening.
Light-headed adj	feeling of dizziness and being off-balance, caused by lack of oxygen in the brain	If you are feeling light-headed again, lie down and call me.
Malignant adj	expected to grow and get much worse (especially related to cancerous cells)	I'm afraid at least one of the tumours is malignant.
Medical school (med. school) noun	place where someone trains to be a doctor	After eight years of medical school I can finally practice medicine.
Newborn noun	an infant that is less than three months old	You have to support her neck because she is still a newborn.
Numb adj	no feeling in a certain body part	The needle will make your lower body feel numb.
OR (operating room) noun	the place where major surgeries and operations take place	You must wear a face mask and gloves while you are in the OR.
Operation nounoperate on verb	a medical procedure that involves going inside a person's body in an attempt to fix a problem	The operation lasted seven hours, but it was successful.
Painnoun	strong discomfort in certain areas of the body	We gave your husband some medicine to relieve some of the pain.
Pain killer, pain reliever noun	type of medicine that takes away some or all of the discomfort of an illness or injury	You can take two pain killers every four hours.
Paralyzedadj	unable to move certain areas of the body	We thought her legs were paralyzed for life, but she is learning how to walk.
Patient noun	a person staying in a hospital or medical facility	The patients in Room 4 are not getting along.
Pharmacist noun	a person who fills a doctor's prescription and gives people advice about medication	Ask the pharmacist if there is a generic brand of this medication.
Pharmacy, drugstore noun	a place where people go to buy medication and other medical supplies	You should be able to buy a bandage at the pharmacy.
Physiciannoun	doctor	Ask your family physician to refer you to a specialist.
Poisonnounpoisonous adj	a substance that is very dangerous if it enters the human body	The child was bitten by a poisonous snake.
Prenatal adj	of the time period leading up to giving birth	The woman was well prepared for labour because she took the prenatal classes.
Prescription nounprescribe verb	the correct amount and type of medication needed to cure an illness or relieve symptoms	You will need to visit your doctor to get another prescription.
Privacy noun private adj	being alone; personal (eg test results)	You will have to pay for a private hospital room if you don't want a room-mate.
Radiation noun	high energy X-rays that destroy cancer cells	If the radiation doesn't kill all of the abnormal cells, the cancer will come back.
Residency resident noun	part of a doctor's training that takes place in the hospital; a student working under a doctor	John is a resident under Dr Brown.
Routine check­up noun	a doctor's appointment to check a person's general health	I'd like to see you a year from now for a routine check-up.
Scrubs noun	plain uniform (usually green, white, or blue) worn by medical professionals	I have some extra scrubs in my locker.
Scrub upverb	carefully wash hands before and after seeing a patient	I have to scrub up and get ready for surgery.
Second opinion noun	input from a second doctor about an illness or symptom	I went to another doctor to get a second opinion about these headaches.
Seizure noun	sudden violent movements or unconsciousness caused by electrical signal malfunction in the brain	People who suffer from epilepsy are prone to seizures.
Shocknoun	body not getting enough blood flow	The woman was in shock after being pulled from the river.
Side effects noun	other symptoms that might occur as a result of a certain medication or procedure	One of the side effects of antidepressants is a loss of appetite.
Sore adj	painful	I have a sore throat and a runny nose.
Spasm noun	the uncontrollable tightening of a muscle	Ever since I injured my leg I've been having muscle spasms in my upper thigh.
Specialist noun	a doctor that is an expert in a certain kind of medicine	My family doctor is sending me to a specialist.
Sprain noun/ verb	an injury (less serious than a break) to a joint (ankle, wrist, knee etc)	I sprained my knee playing soccer.
Stable condition noun	a patient is stable if their medical condition is no longer changing rapidly	You can see your husband now; he is in a stable condition.
Sting noun/verb	sharp, temporary pain	It may sting when I insert the needle.
Stress nounstressed adj	worry that causes muscles to tighten and blood pressure to rise	You need to take some time off work and relieve some of your stress.
Swelling nounswollen adj	ligaments (parts that hold the joints together) growing bigger and rounder after an injury to a joint	I knew my ankle was sprained because it was so swollen.
Symptoms noun	pain or physical changes that occur because of an illness or disease	You have all of the symptoms of a diabetic.
Temperature noun	amount of heat measured in a body; higher than normal temperature	We brought Jesse to emergency because he was running a (high) temperature.
Tender adj	painful when touched or used	The incision was tender after the surgery.
Test results noun	medical information that helps doctors understand a patient's condition or body	The test results came back negative. You aren't pregnant.
Therapy noun	treatment aimed at improving a person's mental or physical condition	I was able to go back to work a few weeks after starting the therapy.
Transplant noun	moving of an organ from one human to another	The heart transplant saved your life.
Ultrasound noun	a test that examines the body's internal organs and processes using sound waves (often used during pregnancies)	The ultrasound shows that we are expecting a baby boy.
Umbilical cord noun	the lifeline from the mother to the fetus (when cut at birth this forms the belly button)	I had an emergency C-section because the umbilical cord was wrapped around the baby's neck.
Unconscious adj	alive, but appearing to be asleep and unaware of the surroundings	I hit my head on the steering wheel and was still unconscious when the ambulance arrived.
Urine sample noun	a small amount of the body's liquid waste that is tested for different medical reasons	The urine sample tells us how much alcohol is in your blood.
Vein noun	the thin tubes that transport blood around the body and back to the heart	I'm just looking for the best vein in which to insert the needle.
Virus noun	a dangerous organism that causes the spread of minor and major diseases	The virus is contractable through the exchange of bodily fluids.
Visiting hours noun	time of day when friends and family are allowed to visit patients in hospital	I'm afraid you'll have to come back during visiting hours.
Vomit noun/ verb	discharge of a person stomach contents through the mouth	The pregnant woman can't stop vomiting.
Ward noun	a section of a hospital or health facility where patients stay	I should warn you that we're entering the mental health ward.
Wheelchair noun	a chair on wheels used for transporting patients from place to place	If you get in the wheelchair I'll take you down to see the garden.
Wound noun wounded adj	injury to body ("flesh wound" means not deep)	The wounded soldiers are being airlifted to the hospital.
X-ray noun/ verb	a photograph of a person's bones and organs	The technician took X-rays of my shoulder to make sure it wasn't broken.

Словник захворювань

Алкоголизм - Alcoholism;

Аллергия - Allergy;

Ангина - Quinsy;

Анемия - Anaemia;

Анорексия - Anorexia;

Артрит - Arthritis;

Астигматизм - Astigmatism;

Астма - Asthma;

Атеросклероз - Atherosclerosis;

Атрофия - Atrophy;

Аутизм - Autism;

Ботулизм - Botulism;

Бронхит - Bronchitis;

Витилиго - Vitiligo;

Гайморит - Antritis;

Гангрена - Gangrene;

Гастрит - Gastritis;

Геморрой - Piles;

Гемофилия - Haemophilia;

Гепатит - Hepatits;

Глаукома - Glaucoma;

Гонорея - Gonorrhea;

Грипп - Flu; influenza;

Дерматит - Dermatitis;

Диабет - Diabetes;

Диарея - Diarrhea;

Дистрофия - Dystrophy;

Дифтерия - Diphtheria;

Импотенция - Impotence;

Инсульт - Stroke; apoplexy;

Инфаркт миокарда - Myocardial infarction;

Катаракта - Cataract;

Климакс - Menopause;

Коклюш - Hooping cough;

Кольпит - Colpitis; vaginitis;

Кондилома - Condyloma;

Ларингит - Laryngitis;

Лейкоз - Leukaemia;

Лнмфостаз - Lymphostatis;

Лихорадка - Fever;
Малярия - Malaria;

Мастит - Mastitis;

Меланома - Melanoma;

Менингит - Meningitis;

Молочница - Thrush;

Наркомания - Drug addiction, narcomania;

Невралгия - Neuralgia;

Нейродермит - Neurodermatitis;

Нефрит - Nephritis;

Олигофрения - Oligophrenia;

Оспа - Smallpox;

Панкреатит - Pancreatitis;

Папиллома - Papilloma, papillary tumor;

Пародонтоз - Parodontosis,

amphodontosis;

Педикулез - Pediculosis;

Пиелонефрит - Pyelonephritis;

Плеврит - Pleurisy;

Пневмония - Pneumonia;

Подагра - Gout; podagra;

Полиомиелит - Poliomyelitis; polio;

Простатит - Prostatitis;

Псориаз - Psoriasis;

Ревматизм - Rheumatism; rheumatics;

Сальмонеллез - Salmonellosis;

Себорея - Seborrhea;

Сепсис - Septicaemia, sepsis;

Сифилис - Syphilis;

Скарлатин - Scarlet fever; scarlatina;

СПИД - AIDS (acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome);

Стенокардия - Stenocardia;

Тахикардия - Tachycardia;

Тонзиллит - Tonsillitis;

Триппер - Gonorrhea;

Туберкулез - Tuberculosis; T.B.;

Фарингит - Pharyngitis;

Фурункулез - Furunculosis;

Хламидиоз - Chlamydia;

Холера - Cholera.

Лексичний мінімум

Англо-русские тематические выражения и разговорник

I. Части тела человека

А. Выражения

I he forehead is hot- лоб горячий

the lips are hot and dry- губы горячие и сухие

the joints are painful- суставы болят