Geneva Conventions — Женевские соглашения, the conventions for suspending hostilities — соглашение о приостановлении военных действий

Syn: contract, agreement, covenant

(3) обычай, традиция, правила поведения

Syn: tradition, custom, usage

(a) ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. How did the conventions arise?

2. What is the difference between conventions and laws?

3. What conventions do you know?

4. What kind of relation do they regulate?

5. Why are the conventions observed?

6. What could result from a failure to observe a convention?

7. What events preceded the Parliament Act 1911?

8. What is the role of conventions as a constitutional source?

(b) Correct mistakes in the following statements:

1. Conventions are written constitutional documents.

2. They are enforceable by the court as they have constitutional meaning.

3. If a person breaks a convention, he will face severe punishment.

4. According to the law Parliament must be summoned at least once a year.

5. The House of Lords authorized to reject any bill passed by the House of Commons.

6. Unwritten conventions make the constitution more rigid because it is difficult to change them if they are out of date.

CALIFORNIA FUNNY LAWS Sunshine is guaranteed to the masses. Bathhouses are against the law. It is a misdemeanor to shoot at any kind of game from a moving vehicle, unless the target is a whale. Women may not drive in a house coat. No vehicle without a driver may exceed 60 miles per hour. Peacocks have the right of way to cross any street, including driveways. Nobody is allowed to ride a bicycle in a swimming pool. You are not permitted to wear cowboy boots unless you already own at least two cows. It is prohibited to sleep in a parked vehicle. Bowling on the sidewalk is illegal. Detonating a nuclear device within the city limits results in a $500 fine.

Task 18. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

Key principles of British Constitution

The separation of powers

One of the fundamental principles underlying the British constitution is that of the separation of powers. According to this principle, developed by the eighteenth-century French philosopher Montesquieu, all state power can be divided into three types: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive represents what we would call the Government and its servants, such as the police and civil servants; the legislative power is Parliament; and judicial authority is exercised by the judges.

The basis of Montesquieu's theory was that these three types of power should not be concentrated in the hands of one person or group, since this would give them absolute control, with no one to check that the power was exercised for the good of the country. Instead, Montesquieu argued, each type of power should be exercised by a different body, so that they can each keep an eye on the activities of the other and make sure that they do not behave unacceptably.

Montesquieu believed that England, at the time when he was writing, was an excellent example of this principle being applied in practice. Whether that was true even then is debatable, and there are certainly areas of weakness now.

The Supremacy of Parliament

A second fundamental principle of our constitution has traditionally been the supremacy of Parliament (also called parliamentary sovereignty). This means that Parliament is the highest source of English law; so long as a law has been passed according to the rules of parliamentary procedure, it must be applied by the courts. The legal philosopher, Dicey, famously explained that according to the principle of parliamentary sovereignty Parliament has «under the English Constitution, the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and, further, that no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament». So if, for example, Parliament had passed a law stating that all newborn boys had to be killed, or that all dog owners had to keep a cat as well, there might well be an enormous public outcry, but the laws would still be valid and the courts would, in theory at least, be obliged to uphold them.

The rule of law

The third basic principle of British constitution is known as the rule of law. It is developed from the writings of the nineteenth-century British jurist and constitutional theorist Albert Venn Dicey (1835—1922). According to A. Dicey, the rule of law had three elements. First, that there should be no sanction without breach, meaning that nobody should be punished by the state unless they had broken a law. Secondly, that one law should govern everyone, including both ordinary citizens and state officials. Thirdly, that the rights of the individual were not secured by a written constitution, but by the decisions of judges in ordinary law.

The real importance of the rule of law today lies in the basic idea underlying all three of Dicey's points (but especially the first) that the state should use its power according to agreed rules, and not arbitrarily.

A practice that has recently come to light which appears to breach the rule of law is that of «extraordinary rendition». This describes the kidnapping of people by state representatives and their subsequent detention, without recourse to established legal procedures (such as a formal request for the extradition of a suspect). The US intelligence service has kidnapped a large number of foreign nationals suspected of involvement with the terrorist organisation, Al Qaeda, from around the world and removed them to secret locations without following any established legal procedures. It has been alleged that the UK has provided the US with some assistance in this practice through, in particular, the provision of information about suspects and the use of UK airports.

The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 introduced some major reforms to the British constitution. This Act expressly states in its first section that it «does not adversely affect... the existing constitutional principle of the rule of law».

Task 19. Find the equivalents in the text:

судебная власть осуществляется судьями

пристально следить за деятельностью других

сомнительный

основной принцип

суверенитет парламента

отменить закон парламента

общественный протест

принцип господства права

нет наказаний при отсутствии нарушений

закон должен управлять каждым

защищены писаной конституцией

обращение к установленным правовым процедурам

разведка

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. What are the functions of different branches of power?

2. What does the separation of powers mean?

3. How do you understand the principle of parliamentary sovereignty?

4. Who can control the legislative activity of Parliament?

5. What are the elements of the rule of law?

6. What are the examples of violation of the rule of law today?

Task 20. Complete the text using words and word combinations from the box:

case law to standardize the law conquest

more predictable in the south the hierarchy of the

modern court system different parts decisions of judges

Sources of english law

English law stems from seven main sources, though these vary a great deal in importance. The basis of English law today is _______ (a mass of judge-made decisions) which lays down rules to be followed in future cases. Another form of law is a statute, or an Act of Parliament. As well as being a source of law in their own right, statutes contribute to case law, since the courts occasionally have to interpret statutory provisions, and such decisions lay down new precedents. Delegated legislation is a related source, laying down detailed rules made to implement the broader provisions of statutes.

The legislation of the European Community is the only type of law that can take precedence over statutes in the UK and influence the decisions of the courts in interpreting statutes. Custom, equity and obligations relating to international treaties are minor sources of law, though Britain's obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights have produced notable contributions to law reform.

Before the Norman ______, different areas of England were governed by different systems of law, often adapted from those of the various invaders who had settled there; roughly speaking, Dane law applied in the north, Mercian law around the midlands, and Wessex law ______ and west. Each was based largely on local custom. The king had little control over the country as a whole, and there was no effective central government.

When William the Conqueror gained the English throne in 1066, he established a strong central government and began, among other things, _______. Representatives of the king were sent out to the countryside to check local administration, and were given the job of adjudicating in local disputes, according to local law. When these «itinerant justices» returned to Westminster, they were able to discuss the various customs of _______of the country, and, by a process of sifting, reject unreasonable ones and accept those that seemed rational, to form a consistent body of rules.

During this process of sifting — which went on for around two centuries — the principle of stare decisis («let the decision stand») grew up. Whenever a new problem of law came to be decided, the decision formed a rule to be followed in all similar cases, making the law _______. In the middle of the 13^th century the «common law» ruled the whole country. The principles behind this «common law» are still used today in creating case law.

From the basic idea of stare decisis, a hierarchy of precedent grew up, in line with _____________. A judge must follow decisions made in courts which are higher up the hierarchy than his or her own. This process was made easier by the establishment of a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the higher courts. The body of decisions made by the higher courts, which the lower ones must respect, is known as «case law» (or «common law»). Case law comes from the ________. The decisions of juries don't make case law.

Notes:

the Norman conquest	завоевание (Англии) норманнами (1066 г.)
William the Conqueror	Вильгельм Завоеватель
Dane law	датские законы (установленные в северо-восточной Британии в Х в.); область, где действовали эти законы
Mercian	мерсийский
to produce notable contributions to…	внести значительный вклад в…
statutory provisions	положения/условия статутов
delegated legislation	право министров издавать приказы, имеющие силу законов
itinerant justice	судья, объезжающий свой округ
to lay down rules to be followed in future cases	устанавливать/сформулировать правила, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других дел
to lay down new precedents	создавать новые прецеденты
to adjudicate (on, upon) in local disputes according to local law	выносить решение/судить местные тяжбы в соответствии с местными законами
to sift	тщательно рассматривать, анализировать (факты)
Sifting	тщательный анализ

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE
SOURCES OF ENGLISH LAW:

1. What are the main sources of English law?
2. What is a statute?
3. What is delegated legislation?
4. How great is the influence of the legislation of the European Community upon the British court system?
5. How great is the influence of customs, equity and obligations relating to international treaties upon the British court system?
6. How great was the influence of the European Convention on Human Rights upon the law reform in Britain a few decades ago?
7. What systems of law were there in different areas of England before the Norman conquest?
8. Did William the Conqueror establish a strong central government?
9. What did William the Conqueror do to standardize the law?
10. How did the «itinerant justices» form a consistent body of rules?
11. How long did the process of sifting during which the principle of stare decisis grew up go on?
12. What does the principle of stare decisis mean?
13. When did the «common law» rule the whole country?
14. Do British lawyers still use the principles behind this «common law» in creating case law today?
15. Where from did the hierarchy of precedent as well as the hierarchy of the modern court system grow up?
16. How does the hierarchy of precedent work today?
17. Is there a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the higher courts?
18. Do the decisions of juries make case law?

Task 21. Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the box:

lay down contribute to as a whole judge-made decisions delegated legislation statute minor sources

take precedence over a consistent body of rules higher courts predictable standardize the law relating to

judges adjudicated lower courts justice itinerant justices

(a) Case law is a mass of ___.

(b) Statutes ___ case law.

(c) A ___ is an Act of Parliament.

(d) Court decisions ___ new precedents.

(e) Customs, equity and obligations ___ international treaties are ___ of law.

(f) ___ lays down detailed rules to implement the broader provisions of statutes.

(g) The legislation of the European Community can ____ statutes in the UK and influence the decisions of the courts in interpreting statutes.

(h) Before the Norman conquest the king had little control over the country ___.

(i) When William the Conqueror gained the English throne he began to ___.

(j) The king's representatives checked local administration and ___ in local disputes according to local law.

(k) The «itinerant justices» rejected unreasonable customs, accepted rational ones and formed ___.

(l) In the middle of the 13^th century the law became more ___.

(m) There is a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the ___.

(n) The ___ must respect the decisions of the higher courts.

(o) Case law comes from the decisions of ___, not from those of juries.

(p) The king sent ______ to the countryside to check the local administration.

(q) The police do everything they can to bring criminals to ___.

Task 22. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

(1) Прецедентное право; основа английского права; семь основных источников английского права; сформулировать правила, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других (будущих) дел; влиять на решения судов; законодательство европейского сообщества; единственный вид права; формулировать подробные правила в целях исполнения положений статутов; перед норманнским завоеванием; на севере, на юге, на западе, на востоке; эффективное централизованное управление; иметь контроль над страной в целом; выносить решения по тяжбам в соответствии с местными законами; в целом; в ходе тщательного анализа, который продолжался два века.

(2) Сколько существует источников английского права? Отличаются ли они по важности?

(3) В настоящее время основа английского права — прецедентное прав.

(4) Прецедентное право — это блок судебных решений, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других дел.

(5) Второй источник английского права — это статут (или постановление парламента).

(6) Судьи вынуждены учитывать положения статутов, а вынесенные таким образом решения создают новые судебные прецеденты.

(7) Третий, связанный с предыдущим, источник английского права — это право министров издавать приказы, имеющие силу законов.

(8) Обычаи, право справедливости и обязательства по международным договорам — это дополнительные / второстепенные источники английского права.

(9) Европейская конвенция о защите прав человека внесла значительный вклад в правовую реформу Великобритании несколько десятилетий назад.

(10) Перед норманнским завоеванием в разных регионах Англии действовали разные системы права, основанные на местных обычаях.

(11) До норманнского завоевания в Англии не было эффективного централизованного управления. Король не мог контролировать всю страну полностью.

(12) Каждое новое судебное решение представляло собой правило, которое должно было соблюдаться во всех последующих делах, что делало законодательство более предсказуемым.

(13) В середине тринадцатого века система прецедентного права доминировала на территории всей страны.

(14) В основе современной судебной системы лежит принцип stare decisis.

(15) Судья должен придерживаться судебных решений судов более высокой инстанции.

(16) Блок решений судов высших инстанций является основой прецедентного права.

Task 23. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

(a)

(1) There are seven main sources of English law: (2) Before the Norman conquest Dane law was (3) To standardize the law William the Conqueror (4) Before the Norman conquest Mercian law was (5) Before the Norman conquest there was no   (6) Before the Norman conquest the Wessex law was (7) William the Conqueror gained the English throne (8) When the «itinerant justices» returned to Westminster (9) During the process of sifting the «itinerant justices»

(a) in the north of England. (b) sent his representatives to the countryside to adjudicate in local disputes according to local law. (c) in the south and in the west of England. (d) case law, statutes, delegated legislation, the legislation of the European Community, customs, equity and obligations relating to international treaties. (e) around the midlands. (f) they discussed various customs of different parts of the country and formed a consistent body of rules. (g) effective central government. (h) rejected unreasonable local customs and accepted those that seemed rational. (i) in 1066.

(b)

(1) The principle of stare decisis (2) Each new court decision forms a rule (3) British lawyers use the principle of stare decisis (4) The hierarchy of the modern court system grew up (5) The principle of stare decisis (6) A judge must follow decisions of courts (7) Case law comes from (8) The decisions of juries (9) The «common law» ruled England

(a) in the middle of the 13th century. (b) from the basic idea of stare decisis. (c) means «let the decision stand». (d) makes the law more predictable. (e) which are higher up the hierarchy than his own. (f) to be followed in all similar cases. (g) the decisions of judges. (h) in creating case law today. (i) don't make case law.

Task 24. Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table on the basis of the text «How Judicial Precedent Works»:

(a) to follow a case (b) to distinguish two cases (c) to overrule a case (d) to reverse a case

(1) считать решение по делу недействительным/аннулировать (2) аннулировать/отменить/изменить решение по делу (3) дать вердикт по делу на основе прецедентного судебного решения (4) провести различие между двумя судебными делами

How Judicial Precedent Works

If the judge sees that there is a similar earlier court decision he may do any of the following:

Follow. If the facts are sufficiently similar to those of the earlier case, the judge follows the precedent and applies the law in the same way to produce a decision.

Distinguish. If the facts of the case before the judge are different from those of the earlier one, the judge distinguishes the two cases and need not follow the earlier one.

Overrule. Where the earlier decision was made in a lower court, the judge can overrule that earlier decision if he disagrees with the lower court's interpretation of the law. The earlier decision remains the same but will not be followed.

Reverse. In case of appealing the decision of a lower court to a higher one, the higher court may change it if the judge feels that the lower court has wrongly interpreted the law. So when a decision is reversed, the higher court usually also overrules the lower court's statement of the law.

In practice the process is rather more complicated than this, since decisions are usually made on the basis of several previous cases, not one.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of case law?

Task 25. Read the text below and give a definition of a «judgment»:

Parts of the Judgment

In deciding a case, there are two basic tasks; first, establishing what the facts are, meaning what actually happened); and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. The judges listen to the evidence and the legal argument and then prepare a written decision as to which party wins. This decision is known as the judgment, and is usually long, containing quite a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case, as well as an explanation of the legal principles on which the judge has made a decision. The explanation of the legal principles on which the decision is made is called the ratio decidendi — Latin for the «reason for deciding». It is this part of the judgment, known as binding precedent, which forms case law. All the parts of the judgment which do not form part of the ratio decidendi of the case are called obiter dicta — which is Latin for «things said by the way». None of the obiter dicta forms part of the case law, though judges in later cases may be influenced by it, and it is said to be a persuasive precedent.

Notes:

a binding precedent обязывающий прецедент

a persuasive precedent убедительный прецедент

Task 26. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

(1) рассмотреть дело в суде; две основные задачи; установить, каковы факты (что в реальности) произошло; как закон может быть применен к данным фактам; слушать свидетельские показания; юридический спор; подготовить в письменной форме решение о том, в пользу какой стороны решено дело; судебное решение; прямо/строго относящийся к делу; часть судебного решения; формировать прецедентное право; в последующих делах; использовать часть судебного решения obiter dicta.

(2) В судебном решении содержится много комментариев, которые часто не имеют прямого отношения к делу.

(3) В судебном решении присутствует также объяснение юридических принципов, на базе которых судья выносит свой вердикт.

(4) Часть судебного решения, известная как обязывающий прецедент, является источником формирования прецедентного права.

(5) Все части судебного решения, которые не формируют ratio decidendi, называются obiter dicta.

(6) Часть судебного решения, известная как убедительный прецедент, не является источником формирования прецедентного права, хотя судьи могут использовать ее постулаты в последующих делах.

Task 27. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

(1) In deciding a case there are two basic tasks: (2) Obiter dicta is Latin for (3) Ratio decidendi is Latin for (4) The judge prepares a written decision (5) The comment in the judgement (6) The ratio decidendi part of the judgement is known as (7) The obiter dicta part of the judgement is often called

(a) the «reason for deciding». (b) as to which party wins. (c) «things said by the way». (d) is not strictly relevant to the case. (e) first, establishing what the facts are; and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. (f) a persuasive precedent. (g) a binding precedent.

Task 28. Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the box:

evidence legal principles persuasive precedent applies

is known judgement binding precedent later cases

(a) The witness gave ___ in a clear firm voice.

(b) This rule ___ to everybody.

(c) The written decision as to which party wins ___ as the judgement.

(d) The ___ is usually long because it contains a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case.

(e) The explanation of the ___ on which the judge makes the decision is known as ratio decidendi.

(f) The part of the judgement known as ___ forms case law.

(g) The part of the judgement known as ___ does not usually form the case law.

(h) Judges in ___ may use the obiter dicta part though it does not usually form the case law.

Task 29. Complete the text using words and word combinations from the box:

common law (2) applied this common law the «fountain of justice» the Middle Ages

one of the available types of writ to do justice in each case on a flexible basis

with the people a developed case law and recognizable principles predictable

Equity

In ordinary language, equity means fairness, but in law it applies to a specific set of legal principles, which add to those provided in the common law. Lawyers often contrast «common law» and «equity». Equity and ______ may be different, but both are law.

The common law was developed after the Norman Conquest through the «itinerant justices» traveling around the country and sorting out disputes. By about the twelfth century, common law courts which ________ had developed. Civil actions in these courts had to be started by a writ, which set out the cause of the action or the grounds for the claim made, and there grew up different types of writ. Early on, new writs were created to suit new circumstances, but in the thirteenth century this was stopped. Litigants had to fit their circumstances to ________. If the case did not fall within one of those types, there was no way of bringing the case to the common law court.

In _______ many of the dissatisfied parties petitioned the king (known as ________) who didn't want to spend time considering those petitions and relied on the advice of his Chancellor _________. The Chancellor, the king's chief minister, was usually a member of the clergy, and was thought of as «keeper of the king's conscience». Soon litigants began to petition the Chancellor himself, and in the end of the 15^th century (by 1474), petitions were referred directly to the Lord Chancellor who dealt with cases ________. He was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. This was the beginning of the Court of Chancery which became very popular ________.

In 1615, in the Earl of Oxford's Case, conflicting judgments of the common law courts and the Court of Chancery were referred to the king for a decision, and he advised that where there was conflict, equity should prevail. Had this decision not been made, equity would have been worthless — it could not fulfill its role of filling in the gaps of the ______ unless it was dominant.

In the seventeenth century the initial flexibility of equity led to uncertainty, and the jurist John Seldon observed that equity varied with the length of the Chancellor's foot. Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable. Equity was unpredictable. Finally equity lost flexibility and conscience and became formalized. Lord Nottingham (Lord Chancellor in 1673—1682) decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction should follow existing principles. Equity began to be ruled by precedent, had ________. By the nineteenth century, equity had become _______, and was no less formalized and rigid than the common law.

So there was no reason why it needed its own courts. Consequently the Judicature Acts of 1873—1875, which established the basis of the court structure that we have today, provided that equity and common law could both be administered by all courts, and that there would no longer be different procedures for seeking equitable and common law remedies. Although the Court of Chancery remained as a division of the High Court, like all other courts it can now apply both common law and equity.

Notes:

a writ	предписание, повестка
to serve writ on smb	послать кому-либо судебную повестку
to set out the cause of the action	изложить причину судебного иска
grounds for the claim	основания для судебного иска
to raise a claim	предъявить претензию, иск
to lay claim to smth	предъявлять права на что-либо
to claim damages	требовать возмещения убытков
Chancellor	канцлер
Lord (High) Chancellor	лорд-канцлер (глава судебного ведомства и верховный судья Англии, председатель палаты лордов и одного из отделений верховного суда)
the Court of Chancery	суд лорд-канцлера, суд совести
equitable	справедливый, беспристрастный

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT EQUITY:

1. What does 'equity' mean in ordinary language?
2. What does 'equity' mean in law?
3. When did the common law appear?
4. What did litigants have to start civil actions with?
5. What was the purpose of the writs which litigants have to start civil actions with?
6. Why were new writs created in the 11^th and in the 12^th centuries? When did it stop?
7. Could litigants bring the case to the common law court if the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ?
8. Who did many of the dissatisfied parties petition in the Middle Ages? Why?
9. Whose advice did the king rely on to do justice? Why?
10. When were petitions referred directly to the Lord Chancellor, and not to the king?
11. In what way did the Lord Chancellor deal with the cases referred to him?
12. Why did the Court of Chancery become very popular with the people?
13. Was equity predictable or unpredictable? Was its flexibility an advantage or a disadvantage (преимущество или недостаток) in comparison with the strictly formulated rules of common law?
14. What did the initial flexibility of the Court of Chancery lead to in the seventeenth century?
15. What did the jurist John Seldon say about equity?
16. When and why did equity lose its flexibility and conscience and become formalized?
17. What did Lord Nottingham think about administering justice in the Court of Chancery?
18. What legal principles did the Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 establish?
19. Did the Court of Chancery remain as a division of the High Court or as an independent body?
20. Can all courts administer both equity and common law today?

Task 30. Complete the sentences using words and word combinations from the box:

ordinary language flexible basis rigid principles legal principles grounds for the claim

fair result «itinerant justices» bring the case exercising equity jurisdiction

circumstances adoption unpredictable administer

(1) In ___ equity means fairness.

(2) In law equity applies to a number of ___ which add to those of common law.

(3) The common law appeared after the Norman conquest through the ___ traveling around the country.

(4) Litigants had to set out the cause of the action or the ___ in the writ.

(5) At first courts created new writs to suit new ___.

(6) If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, litigants could not ___ to the common law court.

(7) The Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the ___ than with ___ of common law.

(8) The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases on a ___.

(9) Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable and equity was ___.

(10) Lord Nottingham decided that a judge ___ should follow existing principles.

(11) With the ___ of the system of precedent in the Court of Chancery equity became as formalized and rigid as the common law.

(12) The Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 provided that all courts could ___ both equity and common law.

Task 31. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости

возбудить дело против кого-либо

изложить причину судебного иска

основания для предъявления претензий

разные виды судебных исков

создавать новые формы судебных исков

соответствовать новым условиям

не выходить за рамки существующих типов судебных исков

обратиться с иском в суд общего права

средние века

недовольная сторона

подать прошение королю

известный как «источник справедливости»

полагаться на советы/суждения лорд-канцлера

рассматривать судебные дела с гибкостью

беспокоиться о справедливости решения

жесткие/негибкие принципы
общего права

первоначальная гибкость суда
лорд-канцлера

привести к неопределенности

четко сформулированные законы/правила общего права

предсказуемый/непредсказуемый

в конце концов

потерять гибкость и совесть

стать формальным

судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости

следовать/принимать решение на основе уже действующих/существующих принципов

к девятнадцатому веку

принятие прецедентной системы в суде лорд-канцлера

отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости

заложить основы структуры судопроизводства

подобно другим судам

структурное подразделение Высокого Суда.

(1) В своем обычном языковом значении термин «equity» обозначает справедливость.

(2) В юриспруденции термин «equity» применяется относительно нескольких правовых принципов, которые являются дополнением к общему праву.

(3) Чтобы возбудить дело, истцы должны были послать ответчику судебную повестку определенной формы.

(4) В судебном иске истец должен был изложить причину судебного иска и указать основания для предъявления претензий.

(5) Новые формы судебных исков соответствовали новым условиям.

(6) Истцу приходилось формулировать свои претензии таким образом, чтобы это соответствовало одному из уже существующих типов судебных исков.

(7) В Средние века многие недовольные подавали прошение королю.

(8) Король часто полагался на суждение лорда-канцлера при отправлении правосудия.

(9) В пятнадцатом веке люди обращались с прошениями напрямую к лорд-канцлеру, который считался «хранителем совести короля».

(10) Лорд-канцлера больше волновала справедливость решения, нежели жесткие принципы общего права.

(11) Суд лорд-канцлера стал очень популярен.

(12) В семнадцатом веке первоначальная гибкость суда лорд-канцлера привела к неопределенности.

(13) Джон Селдон заметил, что справедливость варьировалась в зависимости от размера ноги лорд-канцлера.

(14) Лорд-канцлер решил, что судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости, должен принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов.

(15) С принятием прецедентной системы в суде лорд-канцлера правосудие на базе «права справедливости» стало таким же заформализованным и негибким, как и в судах общего права.

(16) Подобно всем другим судам суд лорд-канцлера в наши дни принимает решения на основе принципов как общего права, так и права справедливости.

Task 32. (a) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

(1) to start an action against smb (2) to set out the cause of the action (3) to set out the grounds for the claim (4) to suit new circumstances (5) to bring the case to the common law court (6) the Middle Ages (7) equity (8) а dissatisfied party (9) the Court of Chancery (10) rigid principles (11) to contrast «common law» and «equity»

(a) изложить причину судебного иска (b) обратиться с иском в суд общего права (c) возбудить дело против кого-либо (d) право справедливости (e) соответствовать новым условиям (f) средние века (g) изложить основания для предъявления претензий (h) недовольная сторона (i) жесткие принципы (j) противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости (k) суд лорд-канцлера / суд совести

(b) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

(1) to rely on the advice of the Chancellor (2) to lose flexibility (3) to administer both equity and common law (4) conscience (5) to become predictable (6) to lead to uncertainty (7) to petition the king (8) strictly formulated rules (9) to exercise equity jurisdiction (10) to follow existing principles

(a) потерять гибкость (b) совесть (c) отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости (d) полагаться на советы канцлера (e) привести к неопределенности (f) подать прошение королю (g) стать предсказуемым (h) отправлять правосудие в рамках права справедливости (i) принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов (j) четко сформулированные правила

(c) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

(1) In ordinary language equity (2) In law equity applies to the legal principles of (3) Lawyers often contrast 'common law' (4) In the 13th century litigants had to fit their circumstances (5) If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, (6) In the Middle Ages the dissatisfied parties often (7) In the Middle Ages the king was known as (8) In the Middle Ages the Lord Chancellor was known as (9) The Court of Chancery became very popular because (10) In the 15th century petitions were referred directly

(a) flexibility and conscience. (b) and 'equity'. (c) means fairness. (d) to one of the available types of writ. (e) litigants could not bring the case to the common law court. (f) the 'fountain of justice'. (g) petitioned the king. (h) the Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. (i) the 'keeper of the king's conscience'. (j) to the Lord Chancellor.

(d) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

(1) With the adoption of the system of precedent, (2) John Seldon observed that (3) The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases (4) Lord Nottingham decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction (5) Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable whereas (тогда как) (6) The Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 established (7) Finally equity became as formalized and rigid (8) In the 19th century there was no reason why equity (9) The Court of Chancery is (10) The Court of Chancery can apply

(a) a division of the High Court now. (b) the basis of the court structure that we have today. (c) both common law and equity now. (d) equity varied with the length of the Chancellor's foot. (e) equity became predictable and formalized. (f) on a flexible basis. (g) equity was unpredictable. (h) needed its own courts. (i) as the common law. (j) should follow existing principles.

ARIZONA FUNNY LAWS Hunting camels is prohibited. Any misdemeanor committed while wearing a red mask is considered a felony. There is a possible 25 years in prison for cutting down a cactus. Donkeys cannot sleep in bathtubs. It is illegal to manufacture imitation cocaine. When being attacked by a criminal or burglar, you may only protect yourself with the same weapon that the other person possesses. It is unlawful to refuse a person a glass of water. It is illegal to sing in a public place while wearing a swimsuit. Cars may not be driven in reverse. Cards may not be played in the street with a Native American. A decree declares that anyone caught stealing soap must wash himself with it until it is all used up. It is illegal for men and women over the age of 18 to have less than one missing tooth visible when smiling.

Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice
appellate court (Court of Appeal)	апелляционный суд
to appeal	подавать апелляционную жалобу
valid	юридически действительный, имеющий силу
application	принятие (права, закона); заявление, просьба, ходатайство.
to exercise jurisdiction	осуществлять юрисдикцию
Magistrates' Court	магистратский суд
Crown Court	королевский суд / суд Короны
High Court	Верховный Суд
County Court	суд графства
court of first instance	суд первой инстанции
European Court of Human Rights	Европейский суд по правам человека
Juvenile Court	суд по делам несовершеннолетних
justice of the peace	мировой судья
to decide a case	выносить решение по делу
to have the right to trial by jury	иметь право на суд присяжных
to hear appeals	рассматривать апелляции
to have evidence	иметь улики
barrister	барристер (адвокат, имеющий право выступать в высших судах)
solicitor	солиситор, адвокат, поверенный
advocacy	деятельность адвоката (в суде)
right of audience	право выступать в суде
proceeding (s)	судебное разбирательство, рассмотрение дела в суде, производство по делу, судопроизводство
criminal proceeding	уголовное преследование
to commence proceeding (s)	инициировать начало рассмотрения дела, возбуждать судебное преследование

JOKES ABOUT LAWYERS A.A gang of robbers broke into a lawyer's club by mistake. The old legal lions gave them a fight for their life and their money. The gang was very happy to escape. «It isn't so bad», one crook noted. «We got $25 between us.» The boss screamed: «I warned you to stay clear of lawyers... we had $100 when we broke in!» B.An engineer, a physicist, and a lawyer were being interviewed for a position as chief executive officer of a large corporation. The engineer was interviewed first, and was asked a long list of questions, ending with «How much is two plus two?» The engineer excused himself, and made a series of measurements and calculations before returning to the board room and announcing, «Four.» The physicist was next interviewed, and was asked the same questions. Before answering the last question, he excused himself, made for the library, and did a great deal of research. After a consultation with the United States Bureau of Standards and many calculations, he also announced «Four.» The lawyer was interviewed last, and was asked the same questions. At the end of his interview, before answering the last question, he drew all the shades in the room, looked outside the door to see if anyone was there, checked the telephone for listening devices, and asked «How much do you want it to be?»

Task 33. Read the text below and make a list of the courts mentioned there.

THE HIERARCHY OF THE COURTS

In the English legal system some courts are bound to follow the decisions of judges in the higher courts. The following text provides an outline of the hierarchy of the courts and the ways in which judges are bound by the decisions of other courts and the ways in which judges are bound by the decisions of other judges.

The House of Lords is the highest appeal court in the English legal system. Its decisions are binding upon all other courts. Until 1966 the House of Lords was also bound by its own previous decisions. In that year the Lord Chancellor, Lord Gardiner, issued a Practice Statement which stated that «while treating former decisions of this House as normally binding» their Lordships would «depart from a previous decision when it appears right to do so».

The Court of Appeal is below the House of Lords in the hierarchy. It is bound by the decisions of the House of Lords and its decisions are binding on lower courts. It is also bound to follow its own previous decisions except when a previous decision of the Court of Appeal conflicts with a decision of the House of Lords, there are two conflicting Court of Appeal decisions when it must choose which one to follow, and a previous decision was given per incuriam (through lack of care — generally when some relevant law was not taken into consideration). These exceptions to the rule that the Court of Appeal must abide by its own previous decisions are called the rules in Young v. Bristol Aeroplane Company (1944), the case in which the rules were laid down.

The court below the Court of Appeal is the High Court of Justice. It is bound to follow the decisions of the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal. Judges of the High Court will normally follow the decisions of fellow High Court judges but they are not absolutely bound to do so.

The court of first instance for criminal cases, the Crown Court is bound by the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal; the lowest courts in the hierarchy, the county court and the magistrates' courts are bound by the high Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. No court is bound by the decisions of these lower courts.

Since 1972 when Britain joined the European Community, the position of the European Court of Justice must also be considered. It is a court of referral in relation to EC law and not a court of appeal, although its decisions on the interpretation of EC law are binding on British courts.

Task 34. Study the table and tell about the structure of the court system in the UK.

THE COURT STRUCTURE OF HER MAJESTY'S
COURTS SERVICE (HMCS)

Her Majesty's Courts Service carries out the administrative and support for the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the magistrates' courts, the county courts and the Probate Service.

Источник. http://www. hmcourts-service.gov.uk/aboutus/structure/index.htm

Unit 2

U.S. COURTS

Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice
the judicial power/branch	судебная власть
the legislative power/branch	законодательная власть
the executive power/branch	исполнительная власть
ruling	постановление, судебное решение
to protect rights and liberties	защищать права и свободы
to apply the law	применять закон
to resolve disputes	урегулировать / разрешать споры
to enforce the laws	следить за соблюдением законов
The Founding Fathers	отцы-основатели
judicial system / judiciary system	судебная система
an independent judiciary	независимое судопроизводство
to ensure fairness and equal justice	обеспечить справедливость и равное правосудие
to promote judicial independence	обеспечить независимость судопроизводства
to draft a law	составить законопроект
to appoint for life	назначать пожизненно
to remove from office	снять с должности
continuance in office	пребывание в должности
conviction	осуждение, признание виновным
treason	измена
high treason	государственная измена
to reduce the salary of a federal judge	уменьшить заработную плату федерального судьи
to decide a case	принять решение по делу
Supreme Court	Верховный Суд
Chief Justice	Председатель (Верховного Суда США)
Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court	член Верховного Суда США
Court of Appeals	Апелляционный Суд
Circuit Court	(выездной) окружной суд
trial court of general jurisdiction	амер. суд первой инстанции общей юрисдикции
district court	(1) федеральный районный суд (федеральный суд первой инстанции в США); (2) местный суд (в ряде штатов в США)
мagistrate	магистрат (должностное лицо, осуществляющее правосудие), судья, мировой судья, полицейский судья
мagistrate court	суд магистрата, магистратский суд, мировой суд
to administer justice	отправлять правосудие
arrest warrant	ордер на арест
summons	повестка в суд
search warrant	ордер на обыск
traffic offence / traffic infraction / traffic violation	нарушение правил дорожного движения
by-law	подзаконный акт, постановление органов местной власти
misdemeanor/misdemeanour	судебно наказуемый проступок, преступление, мисдиминор (категория наименее опасных преступлений, граничащих с административными правонарушениями)
felony	преступление, фелония (категория тяжких преступлений, по степени опасности находящаяся между изменой и мисдимирором)
defendant	ответчик, обвиняемый, подсудимый, подзащитный
plaintiff	ответчик
offender	правонарушитель, преступник, обидчик
suit for damages	иск о возмещении убытков
to initiate a claim	возбудить иск

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Наши рекомендации

to impose a sentence / to impose a fine / to impose a judgement	вынести приговор / налагать штраф / вынести судебное решение
a criminal case	уголовное дело
a civil case / a civil claim	гражданское дело / гражданский иск
ordinance	(1) указ, статут, декрет, постановление, закон, ордонанс; (2) постановление муниципального органа (в США)