Translate the texts from Russian into English using given words.

Блез Паскаль известен как талантливый французский писатель, философ и, особенно, как математик. Кроме того, он был гениальным экспериментатором (1) и изобретателем.

В 1639 году отец Паскаля был отправлен в один из регионов Франции реорганизовать сбор налогов (2). Это была утомительная работа, которая требовала длинных расчетов. Блез решил помочь отцу и постарался создать механизм, который мог точнее и быстрее решить столь длинную вычислительную задачу.

Только после создания 50 неудачных моделей Паскаль добился успеха (3) и создал счетный механизм (4) известный как Машина Паскаля. Она представляла собой систему валов и шестеренок, приводимых в движение вручную (5). Из имеющихся в механизме цифр оператор сам набирал прибавляемое число (6), затем с помощью специальной ручки (7) вращал основной вал. Поворачивая ручку вперед (8), он приводил в действие вычитание, вращение ручки назад (9) обеспечивало сложение (10). Результат считывался в отверстиях на цифровом циферблате (11).

Механизм был крайне хрупким (12) и сложным. Но при аккуратном обращении он давал точные результаты. В то время Машина Паскаля считалась чудом техники (13).

(1) experimentalist;

(2) to collect taxes;

(3) to succeed in;

(4) computing engine;

(5) started by hand;

(6) to dial the number;

(7) handle;

(8) forwards;

(9) backwards;

(10) addition;

(11) numbered holes;

(12) delicate;

(13) was considered to be a mechanical marvel.

TEXT II

Первые вычислительные устройства позволяли механизировать (1) расчеты, но делали это крайне медленно. Оператор вынужден был извлекать промежуточные результаты (2), обрабатывать (3) их отдельно, а затем вновь вводить (4) результат в машину для дальнейшего вычисления.

Чарльз Баббедж был первым, кто попытался (5) решить эту проблему. Его Аналитическая машина давала почти неограниченные (6) возможности для механических вычислений с большим количеством чисел и цифр одновременно (7). Машина включала (8) в себя блок памяти, арифметический блок, блок управления (9) (с помощью перфоленты (10)), а также устройство, показывающее (11) результат.

Однако, несмотря на (12) 30-летнюю работу над своей машиной, Баббедж так и не успел закончить ее.

Сегодня детали этой машины выставлены в Музее Кенсингтон (13) в Лондоне.

(1) mechanize;

(2) to output intermediate results;

(3) to process;

(4) to enter;

(5) to attempt;

(6) unlimited;

(7) simultaneously;

(8) include;

(9) control unit;

(10) tape perforate;

(11) to display;

(12) in spite of;

(13) South-Kensington Museum.

Word-study

Exercise 1. Check the transcription in the dictionary and read the words listed below.

Nouns:

incident, exploration, emphasis, vision, fuel.

Verbs:

allocate, initiate, dial, launch.

Adjectives:

private, interactive, available, relevant, beneficial.

Adverbs:

visually, automatically, simultaneously.

Exercise 2. Read the collocations and translate them.

Cold war paranoia, military inferiority, long term high risk/high payoff research, a number of, relevant information, as to the point of origin, via dial up telephones, so called packet-switching process.

Exercise 3. Match the synonyms.

Verbs:

1) initiate	a) permit
2) implement	b) do
3) enable	c) need
4) require	d) reconcile
5) conceive	e) realize
6) perform	f) dial
7) accommodate	g) plan
	h) influence
	i) promote

Nouns:

1) payoff	a) question
2) occurrence	b) enterprise
3) query	c) demand
4) prospect	d) safety
5) requirement	e) result
6) security	f) connection
	g) event
	h) outlook

Exercise 4. Make nouns from the following verbs according to the model and translate them.

Verb + -tion(-ation):

create, connect, communicate, promote, explore, prepare, destine, inform, realize, civilize, allocate.

Exercise 5. Make acknowledge of the terms that you will find in the texts.

1. The Internet that became the crucial event in development of civilization is a worldwide network of computer networks communicating through a common language.

2. Network is a system of computers which are connected together to share program, data, printers, etc. The Internet is effectively a worldwide network of networks.

3. Processing may be termed as doing calculations needed to deal with given information. The central unit of a computer, processor, is used for that.

Comprehensive reading

While translating the text pay special attention to the italicized sentences in all parts of the text.

THE INTERNET & WWW HISTORY

There is an opinion that if one were to suggest one single occurrence which led to the creation of the Internet, it would be the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik (Satellite) in 1957. This seminal incident in space exploration caused then American President Dwight David Eisenhower to appoint MIT President James Killian as his assistant for science and to create a new department within the Department of Defense named the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).

ARPA became the answer to the rising American Cold war paranoia about military inferiority, fueled not least by the Sputnik success. The agency was designed to perform long-term high risk / high payoff research and development, and in this context put great emphasis on the development of the fledgling computer technology.

It was noted by ARPA that too many resources had been allocated by public and private research in order to produce short-term advances in computer hardware and software. The Agency realized that machines needed greater capability to interact with each other to gather relevant information, solve problems, anticipate data requirements, communicate effectively across distances, present information visually and do all this automatically. Enormous work had to be done.

To begin with, ARPA founded Information Processing Techniques Offices (IPTO) and a psychologist Licklider was appointed as the first director. The researches in IPTO became beneficial to different users because Licklider's main mission was not only to design military tools but rather to realize his personal vision of «Man-Computer Symbiosis». The next discoveries became stages of such a worldwide enterprise as the Internet.

One of these stages was the project initiated by IPTO. It concerned the development of computer process known as time-sharing: MIT scientists advanced the idea to utilize the increasing power of few computers available to the research community and make possible for several people to use the same computer simultaneously. Time-sharing implementing furthered the interactive computing – Licklider's and his associates’ dream. So was established the new trend in computer development that would later become the Internet.

As a further step towards improvement of the networking was the proposal to connect all computers in the research community via dial-up telephones. At the same time, a number of computing specialists were carrying out the possibility of using so-called packet-switching process in order to guarantee the security of military command and control systems against any possible danger. The principle of packet-switching relied on a computer network in which all the computers had equal status and data forwarding capabilities. If a user then wanted a set of data transmitted from one computer to another, regardless of the distance, the transmitting computer would break up the data in small packets measuring only a few bytes.

These packets contained information as to their point of origin, their destination on the network, as well as the information which would enable the computer on the receiving end to reassemble the data set as soon as all packets had arrived.

The fledgling network required a wide range of serious studies. But the most important work was the implementing of communications setting termed as protocol which was nothing but a code of rules for interconnecting various computers. It would enable the diverse number of computer hardware and operating systems to communicate. Protocols became a kind of lingua franca among the connected computers.

In 1969 the first network computers, or IMP (Interface Message Processor) were ready. As related by the networking pioneer and then graduate student Vincent Cerf, the hardware was an immediate success: when they turned the IMP on, it just started running. Thus ARPA succeeded in creating the first effective long-distance computer network which was named ARPANET.

Notes:

lingua franca – специальный язык общения для людей, имеющих разные национальные языки.

Comprehension check

Exercise 1. Find the suitable endings of the following sentences according to information in the text.

1. ARPA became the answer …	a) became beneficial to different uses.
2. The Agency realized that machines …	b) to the rising American cold war paranoia.
3. The researches in IPTO …	c) was an immediate success.
4. In 1969 the first network computers or JMP …	d) needed greater capability to interact with each other to gather relevant information, etc.
	e) was the project.
	f) were ready.

Exercise 2. Choose the correct word to complete the sentence.

1. The … was designed to perform long term high risk/pay off research.

a) agency;

b) institute;

c) office.

2. …work had to be done.

a) Successful;

b) Enormous;

c) Useless.

3. As a further step towards improvement of the networking … was the proposal to connect all computers in the research community via dial-up telephones.

a) telegraph;

b) telephones;

c) radio.

4. The most important work was the … of communicational setting terms as protocol.

a) excluding;

b) implementing;

c) containing.

5. Protocols became a kind of … among the connected computers.

a) tasks;

b) results;

c) lingua franca.

Word-study