Step towards development of a theory
AB VAN LANGEVELDE Province of Friesland, Research Department, P.O. Box 20120, 8900 HM Leeuwar den, the Netherlands.
Research in the field of language and economy is of international political significance. It is relevant to, for instance, the role that is played by national and minority languages in the process of European unification. This article contains a case study of the mutual relationship between language and economy in Friesland, one of the northern provinces of the Netherlands. An ongoing public debate in Friesland concerns the effects of the Frisian language and the language policy, pursued by the provincial authorities, on the functioning of the regional economy. Possible negative consequences are emphasized in this debate, even though the present literature contains hardly any evidence of such consequences. Little information is available about the position of the Frisian language in trade and industry in Friesland. This is why further research is recommended. Because of the importance of the aspect of image formation in the influence of the Frisian language on the economy, elements from behavioural economic geography will be used.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
3. SEGREGATION LEVELS IN THE LATE-APARTHEID CITY 1985-1991
AJ. CHRISTOPHER Department of Geography, University of Port Elizabeth, P.O. Box 1600, Port Elizabeth 6000, South Africa
In the course of the 1980s a number of changes took place in the organization of South African cities, leading to the concept of ‘modernizing’ apartheid. Relaxation of laws and the publicized responses to racial integration in a few localities encouraged the concept of a breakdown of residential barriers. However, an examination of the 1991 census suggests not only that segregation levels are remarkably high, but also that they rose in the period between 1985 and 1991. The White population in particular remains highly segregated from the remainder. There is nevertheless a number of significant regional differences, indicating that urban restructuring was not uniform. The late-apartheid city thus appears little changed from its predecessor.
(Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie: Journal of Economic and Social Geography. Vol. 85, Amsterdam: the Royal Dutch Geographical Society KNAG, 1994.)
4. CLIMATE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN GREENLAND AND ANTARCTICA DURING THE PAST 100,000 YEARS
MICHAEL BENDER, TODD SOWERS, MARY-LYNN DICKSON, JOSEPH ORCHARDO, PIETER GROOTES, PAUL A. MAYEWSKI & DEBRA A. MEESE Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA; Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, New York 10964, USA; Department of Geological Sciences and Quaternary Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA; Glacier Research Group, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire 03824, USA; Cold Regions of Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA.
The ice cores recovered from central Greenland by the GRIP and GISP2 projects record 22 interstadial (warm) events during the part of the last glaciation spanning 20-105 kyr before present. The ice core from Vostok, east Antarctica, records nine interstadials during this period. Here we explore links between Greenland and Antarctic climate during the last glaciation using a high-resolution chronology derived by correlating oxygen isotope data for trapped O2 in the GISP2 and Vostok cores.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 7, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
5. THE ROLE OF DEEP ROOTS IN THE HYDROLOGICAL AND CARBON CYCLES OF AMAZONIAN FORESTS AND PASTURES
DANIEL С. NEPSTAD, CLAUDIO R. de CARVALHOT, ERIC A. DAVIDSON, PETER H. JIPP, PAUL A. LEFEBVRE, GUSTAVO H. NEGREIROS, ELSON D. da SILVAT, THOMAS A. STONE, SUSAN E. TRUMBORE & SIMONE VIEIRA
Woods Hole Research Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA; EMBRAPA-CPATU, CP 48, Belem, Para 66.001, Brazil Department of Earth System Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92717, USA.
Deforestation and logging transform more forest in eastern and southern Amazonia than in any other region of the world. This forest alteration affects regional hydrology and the global carbon cycle, but current analyses of these effects neglect an important deep-soil link between the water and carbon cycles. Using rainfall data, satellite imagery and field studies, we estimate here that half of the closed forests of Brazilian Amazonia depend on deep root systems to maintain green canopies during the dry season.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 12, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
6. Ypt1p IMPLICATED IN v-SNARE ACTIVATION
JLAN P. LIAN, SHELLY STONE, YU JIANG, PATRICK LYONS & SUSAN FERRO-NOVLCK Department of Cell Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA.
Synaptobrevin-like membrane proteins that reside on transport vesicles, called the vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE), play a key role in ensuring that a vesicle targets and fuses with its correct acceptor compartment1-3. Here we show that Boslp, the v-SNARE of yeast endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi transport vesicles, pairs with another integral membrane protein of similar topology (Sec22p) on vesicles.
(Monthly Nature Volume 2 № 12, July 1994. London: Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 1994)
7. THE HYDRODYNAMICS OF DOLPHIN DRAFTING
DANIEL WEIHS, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel.
BackgroundDrafting in cetaceans is defined as the transfer of forces between individuals without actual physical contact between them. This behavior has long been surmised to explain how young dolphin calves keep up with their rapidly moving mothers. It has recently been observed that a significant number of calves become permanently separated from their mothers during chases by tuna vessels. A study of the hydrodynamics of drafting, initiated in the hope of understanding the mechanisms causing the separation of mothers and calves during fishing-related activities, is reported here.
ResultsQuantitative results are shown for the forces and moments around a pair of unequally sized dolphin-like slender bodies. These include two major effects. First, the so-called Bernoulli suction, which stems from the fact that the local pressure drops in areas of high speed, results in an attractive force between mother and calf. Second is the displacement effect, in which the motion of the mother causes the water in front to move forwards and radially outwards, and water behind the body to move forwards to replace the animal’s mass. Thus, the calf can gain a ‘free ride’ in the forward-moving areas. Utilizing these effects, the neonate can gain up to 90% of the thrust needed to move alongside the mother at speeds of up to 2.4 m/s. A comparison with observations of eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) is presented, showing savings of up to 60% in the thrust that calves require if they are to keep up with their mothers.
ConclusionsA theoretical analysis, backed by observations of free-swimming dolphin schools, indicates that hydrodynamic interactions with mothers play an important role in enabling dolphin calves to keep up with rapidly moving adult school members.
(http ://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Abstract %28)
4.13. The purpose of a written summary is to highlight the main idea of a text. While summarizing remember the following advice:
a) Condense the points into straight-forward statements.
b) Remove examples and details. c) Do not add your own views.
d) Write logically. e) Write in your own words.
Study the following examples.
1. The climatic conditions prevailing in the British Isles show a pattern of alternating and unpredictable periods of dry and wet weather, accompanied by a similarly irregular cycle of temperature changes.
British weather is changeable.
2. It is undeniable that the large majority of non-native learners of English experience a number of problems in attempting to master the phonetic patterns of the language.
Many learners find English pronunciation difficult.
3. Tea, whether of the China or Indian variety, is well known to be high on the list of those beverages which are most frequently drunk by the inhabitants of the British Isles.
The British drink a large amount of tea.
4. It is not uncommon to encounter sentences which, though they contain a great number of words and are constructed in a highly complex way, none the less turn out on inspection to convey very little meaning of any kind.
Some long and complicated sentences mean very little.
5. One of the most noticeable phenomena in any big city, such as London or Paris, is the steadily increasing number of petrol-driven vehicles, some in private ownership, others belonging to the public transport system, which congest the roads and render rapid movement more difficult year by year.
Big cities have growing traffic problems.
6. People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not on the whole, conspicuous for their respect for factual accuracy.
Politicians often lie.
4.14. Now read an example of making a summary of a text.
VOLCANIC ISLANDS
Islands have always fascinated the human mind. Perhaps it is the instinctive response of man, the land animal, welcoming a brief intrusion of earth in the vast, overwhelming expanse of sea. When sailing in a great ocean basin, a thousand miles from the nearest continent, with miles of water beneath the ship, one may come upon an island which has been formed by a volcanic eruption under the sea. One’s imagination can follow its slopes down through darkening waters to its base on the sea floor. One wonders why and how it arose there in the midst of the ocean.
The birth of a volcanic island is an event marked by prolonged and violent travail: the forces of the earth striving to create, and all the forces of the sea opposing. At the place where the formation of such an island begins, the sea floor is probably nowhere more than about fifty miles thick. In it are deep cracks and fissures, the results of unequal cooling and shrinkage in past ages. Along such lines of weakness the molten lava from the earth’s interior presses up and finally bursts forth into the sea. But a submarine volcano is different from a terrestrial eruption, where the lava, molten rocks, and gases are hurled into the air from an open crater. Here on the bottom of the ocean the volcano has resisting it all the weight of the ocean water above it. Despite the immense pressure of, it may be, two or three miles of sea water, the new volcanic cone builds upwards towards the surface, in flow after flow of lava. Once within reach of the waves, its soft ash is violently attacked by the motion of the water which continually washes away its upper surface, so that for a long period the potential island may remain submerged. But eventually, in new eruptions, the cone is pushed up into the air, where the lava hardens and forms a rampart against the attacks of the waves.
Firstly make notes
island formation: earth versus sea;
where? sea bed, not more 50 miles thick, cracked and uneven;
weak → lava bursts through;
c.f. land volcano: no sea pressure;
how? lava cone pushes upwards;
surface-washed away by waves → submerged;
lava hardens → island.
Secondlyusing this list of points, write your rough draft, referring to the original only when you want to make sure of some point.
A volcanic island comes into being after a long and violent struggle has taken place between the forces of the earth and the sea. The island begins to form when hot lava breaks through weak points on the sea-bed where the earth’s crust is not more than fifty miles thick and is marked by deep cracks. The volcanic island, unlike a land volcano, has to push up through the immense pressure of the sea. The cone made up of lava finally reaches the surface, but it does not appear because waves wash away its upper surface. When the lava hardens it stands up to the waves and the island is formed.
And thirdly after correcting your draft, write an accurate summary of your text.
A volcanic island is born only after a long and violent struggle between the forces of the earth and the sea. It begins to form when hot lava breaks through a cracked and uneven part of the sea-bed where the earth’s crust is weak. Unlike the land volcano, it has to build upwards despite the immense water-pressure until it finally reaches the surface. Even then it is too soft to withstand the waves and remains underwater until the cone is pushed into the air from below and the lava hardens.
■ A number of examples of summarizingyou can find and study in Appendix 4.
4.15. Read the passage below on Rural Tourism, make notes on it and then summarize the advantages and disadvantages in two sentences.