Exc.1 Give Russian equivalents for the following general types of punishment. Put them in descending order of severity.

· Capital punishment

· Community service

· Disciplinary training in a detention center

· Fixed penalty fine

· Life imprisonment

· Probation

· Short-term imprisonment

Exc.2 Give Russian equivalents to the words given in bold type.

THE COURT OF JUSTICE

The Court of Justicehas been one of the most important champions of European integrationbut has pursued this cause largely out of the public eye. While media and political attention have focused on the Commission of the Council of Ministersthe Court has quietly gone about its business, working far away from the political frayin its Luxembourg headquarters.

Its job is to rule on interpretations of the treaties and EU laws, and to ensurethat national and European laws and international agreements being considered by the EU meet the terms and the spirit of the treaties.It can ruleon the constitutionality of all EU law, gives rulings to national courts in cases where there are questions about the meaning of EU law, and rules in disputes involving EU institutions, member statesindividuals and corporations. The Court's role has been vital to the development of the EU: without a body of lawcapable of uniform interpretationand application, the E U would have no authority and its decisions and policies would be arbitrary and largely meaningless.

THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Article 38 providesthat the European Court of Human Rights shall consist of a number ofjudges equal to that of the Members of the Council of Europe. No two judges may be nationals of the same state.

Under Article 39 the members of the court shall be electedby the Consultative Assembly by a majority of the votescast from a list of persons nominated by the members of the Council of Europe.The candidates shall be of high moral character and must either possess the qualifications required for appointment to high judicial officeor be jurists of recognized competence. Members of the court are elected for nine years.

Article 43 provides that for the consideration of each case brought before it the court shall consist of a chambercomposed of seven judges. There shall sit as an ex officiomember of the chamber, the judge who is a national of any state party concerned, or, if there is none, a person of its choice who shall sit in the capacity of judge.

Only the High Contracting Parties and the Commission have the right to bring a case before the court. An individual applicant cannot initiate proceedings or plead his case. Under Article 45 the jurisdiction of the court shall extend toall cases concerning the interpretation and application of the present convention which the High Contracting Parties or the Commission shall refer to it, providing that the High Contracting Parties have declared that they recognize as compulsorythe jurisdiction of the court in all matters concerning the interpretation and application of the present convention.

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HUMAN RIGHTS

Everybody knows that many of the rights of citizens are considered human rights. For example, a constitutional right is one which a state guarantees to its own citizens and sometimes even to foreigners who are within its jurisdiction. Still a question comes: What are human rights? Not everyone agrees that being born a human being entitled someone to certain freedoms and certain treatment. And those who agree have different opinions as to what these rights are. A human right is one to which people all over the world are entitled, whatever their nationality and wherever they live.

Most of the law in the world is made by governments for their own people. But human rights are independent of any political divisions. They are basic minimum standards of freedom and security for all people. When governments do not meet these standards, they are criticized by their own citizens and even by foreign governments. Sometimes some countries impose economic sanction against those countries where human rights are violated. For example, many countries have limited trade to South Africa because of the policy of apartheid (апартеид).

As a rule, human rights are violated when governments violate their own constitutions, and very often their policies make citizens to escape to another countries. But legally, most countries of the world have signed international agreements concerning the treatment of individuals. The most important agreement is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted by UN General Assembly in 1948. Article 1 of UDHR declares that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and Article 2 states that it does not depend upon race, color, sex, language, religion or any other difference among people.