D) Barbarisms and foreign words

Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary

Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so far prolific in the production of new meanings.

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.

Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary, which falls out of the standard English altogether.

The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another.

Specific literary vocabulary

A) Terms

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. They know no isolation; they always come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries which, unlike general dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms. All these clusters of terms form the nomenclature, or system of names, for the objects of study of any particular branch of science.

Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the belles-lettres style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a given notion or concept. The their function is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some references to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person.

B) Poetic and highly literary words

First of all poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry and prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial.

Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities and certain number of special words. The specific poetic vocabulary has a marked tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stock and assume a special significance. Poetic words claim to be, as it were, of higher rank.

Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

C) Archaic words

The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language. We’ll distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use; 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete. 3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable.

There is another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historic words. Words of this type never disappear from the language.

Archaic words are used in historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters, legal language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.

d) Barbarisms and foreign words

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. The great majority of the borrowed words now form part of the rank and file of the English vocabulary. There are some words which retain their foreign appearance to greater or lesser degree. These words, which are called barbarisms, are also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms. Barbarisms are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic information.

Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. There are foreign words which fulfill a terminological function. Many foreign words and phrases have little by little entered the class of words named barbarisms and many of these barbarisms have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities, become more or less naturalized and have merged with the native English stock of words.

Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims, aims which predetermine their typical functions. One of these functions is to supply local color. Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of writing, but are most often to be found in the style of belles-lettres and the publicistic style.

E) literary coinages

Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property – that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve the occasion”. However, a word or a meaning once fixed in writing may become part and parcel of the general vocabulary irrespective of the quality of the word.

The coining of new words generally arises with the need to designate new concepts and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. There are 2 types of newly coined words: 1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms; 2) words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism.

Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages. Most of the literary coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.

Special colloquial vocabulary

A) Slang

The term slang is ambiguous and obscure. The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows: 1) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type…; 2) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; 3) language of highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or current words employed in some special sense.

In England and USA slang is regarded as the quintessence of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar.

B) Jargonisms

Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code. Jargonisms are social in character. In England and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon. There is a common jargon and special professional jargons. Jargonisms do not always remain on the outskirts of the literary language. Many words entered the standard vocabulary.

C) Professionalisms

Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work or at home. Professional words name anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. Their main feature is technicality. They are monosemantic.

Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology.

D) Dialectal words

Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. There sometimes is confusion between the terms dialectal, slang and vernacular. All these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education, etc.

Some dialectal words are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. Of quite a different nature are dialectal words which are easily recognized as corruptions of standard English words. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. And even here their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalities through their speech.

E) Vulgar words

The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines vulgarism as “a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech”. I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions.

There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling.

The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

F) Colloquial coinages

Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and meanings may acquire legitimacy and thus become facts of the language, while on the other hand they may be classified as literary or colloquial according to which of the meanings is being dealt with.

When a nonce-word comes into general use and is fixed in dictionaries, it is classified as a neologism for a very short period of time. This shows the objective reality of contemporary life. Technical progress is so rapid that it builds new notions and concepts which in their turn require new words to signify them. Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life.