Obligation and advice: should, ought to, had better

Should and ought to

We can use both should and ought to to talk about obligation and duty, to ask for and give advice, and, in general, to say what is right or good.

You should learn to swim./You ought to learn

to swim.

You shouldn't tell lies./ You oughtn't to tell

lies.

What do you think I should do?/ What do

you think I ought to do?

Should and ought to are very similar in meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from outside the speaker eg from laws or rules. Should is a little more common, and ought to is a little more emphatic.

Note that after should, we use the infinitive without to eg learn, tell.but after ought, we use to+ infinitive eg to learn, to tell.

We use should have/ought to have + past participle to say that someone did the wrong thing in the past.

I should have posted this letter yesterday, but I forgot. (I did not post it.) I'm really tired this morning. I shouldn't have stayed up so late last night. (I stayed up late.) Haven't you finished your homework yet? You ought to have done it last night. (You did not do it.)

Had better

Had better (+ infinitive without to) expresses a strong recommendation in a particular situation.

I'm going to an interview tomorrow. I'd better iron my shirt.

It's going to be cold tonight. We'd better turn on the heating.

('d better =had better)

We always use had (not have) with better in this structure, but the meaning is present or future, not past.

We form the negative with had better not. We'd better riot be late.

Had better often suggests a kind of threat or warning of possible bad consequences and is stronger than should or ought to.

You'd better take care of that cut on your hand soon, or it will get infected.

Should/Ought to and Must compared

All of them are used to express obligation, but must is often obligation with the sense of command, while the meaning of obligation in should and ought to is weakened to advice, admonition, recommendation. (must = strong obligation, should/ought to — mild obligation)

Must also expresses duty but is a much stronger word than should or ought to. People are often punished if they do what they must not do, or if they don't do what they must do.

A man must not steal. (If he steals he will be put into prison.)

You must study your lessons. (If you do not study you will not pass your exams. Failure is a kind of punishment.)

But people who do what they should not do, or what they ought not to do, are not always punished.

We should (ought to) clean our teeth after every meal. (But many of us forget to clean our teeth, or we have no time to clean them, and we are not punished.)

Should and ought to suggest that the person or

thing concerned is advised, required or expected to

take a certain action but is free to avoid it. Must

differs from should and ought to in that the person

or thing concerned is not considered free to avoid

the required or expected action. With must this

action is imagined as inevitable.

Should and ought to are used when mustwould

sound too peremptory.

Must indicates an obligation, usually one that comes

from outside. Rules and regulations usually make

use of must.

Ought to and should are often used to indicate

moral obligation, the feeling of obligation that comes

from inside us.

Illustrative Situations

1. Tony is typical of many young men today. He is overweight and he never gets any exercise. He drives everywhere. Even if he wants a packet of cigarettes from the corner shop, he drives there. The doctor has told him to get more exercise and to walk as much as possible.

He should get more exercise.

He should walk when he goes to the corner shop.

Perhaps he should take up tennis or golf.

2. Young Dr Pildare is drunk. Everyone is shocked. The worst thing is that he has just come into the operating

theatre without a mask on. There is also a dirty black cigar in his mouth. He knows all this is strictly forbidden.

He should be wearing a mask. He shouldn't be smoking.

3. You went out without your mac yesterday. When it started raining you didn't even shelter under a tree.

You should have been wearing your mac. You should have sheltered under a tree.

4. The supervisor was furious. It wasn't tea-time, yet when she went into the packing-department she found all the girls there were not working. They were having a cup of tea. They didn't go back to work when she came in. In fact, they laughed at her.

They shouldn't have been drinking tea. They shouldn't have laughed at her.

5. The goal-keeper suddenly decided to have a rest. He sat down in front of the goal and didn't even bother to get up when the other team attacked. One of the forwards shot the ball into the net. He simply watched.

He should have been standing up. He should have stopped the ball.

6. Jack smokes and coughs a lot. His wife says, 'You ought to stop smoking. You ought to have done that long ago.'

7. Robert has an important examination in a few days, but he spends a lot of time on the beach swimming and sunbathing. His mother says, 'You ought to be studying for your exam. You shouldn't be spending all your time on the beach.'

8. Susan and Ron have just had an accident. Luckily neither of them was hurt. Susan says, 'You ought to have stopped at the traffic lights. You shouldn't (oughtn't to) have been driving so fast.'

9. Frank Martin has not been feeling very well lately. He has been working a lot overtime because he wants to buy a new car. The doctor has been examining him. 'You've been working too hard, that's all,' he is saying. 'You'd better take things easy for a while. You'd better not work so hard.'

10. Peter is making a long-distance call to Canada. He has been talking for six minutes and the operator has just asked him to put some more money in. He has not got any. 'Look,' he is saying to the person in Canada. 'I think I'd better hang up now.'

11. Mrs Wilson: Did you remember to pay the phone bill? Mr Wilson: No, I completely forgot. We'd better pay

it soon, or they'll cut us off! Well, it's 8.20. I'd better leave for work.

Mrs Wilson: It's raining, you know, you'd better not go without a coat.

Mr Wilson: You're right.

Activities

/. Analyse the meanings expressed by shouldand ought to.

Observe the forms of the infinitive. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. 'I'm sorry.' 'You should be.' 2. 'You should come here often,' he said to Shelton. 'You ought to come here often,' he repeated to Shelton. 3. 'I've come to tell you that I'm sorry.' 'You ought to be,' I said. 4. He looked more than ever out of place, he should have stayed at home. 5. 'You ought to be careful not to make a fool of yourself,' I said to Percy. 6. It's late. You should go to bed. 7. Look, if you're worried you ought to see Dr Devit. He is a sensible doctor. 8. He thought, 'She is not thinking of me — why should she? She's young.' 9. She smiled. 'You ought to get married yourself, my boy.' 10. Betty says it's a kid's game anyway and I ought to be ashamed of myself flying a kite at my age.

11. 'I'm not sure, young man,' said Eden, 'that I oughtn't to refuse straight out — in your own best interests.' 12. But she was too young to know that wisdom shouldn't be spoken about when you are happy. 13. Perhaps it is one's duty. Perhaps I ought to do it. Perhaps you'd better tell them I will do it — just as a matter of duty. 14. He ought never to have married a woman eighteen years younger than himself. 15. You should have gone to the concert. Why should you miss the music? 16. There were fifteen equally good reasons why she should not have played bridge. 17. 'Mr Davidson thinks that such a costume should be prohibited by law,' said his wife. 18. Why should I know anything about them?

19. Oh, Renny, you should not have done what you did.

20. They both thought it an opportunity that shouldn't be missed. 21. I think you ought to show some respect for the dead. 22. The doctor told her she ought to go to a sanatorium. 23. 'He was pleased with his present,' said Mr Sunbury to change the conversation. 'And so he ought to be,' said Mrs Sunbury still upset. 24. He knew he ought to tell Gorin and allow him to take other plans, but he continued to postpone the decision. 25. Aunt Milly took it into her head that I ought to become an engineer. 26. Small children ought not to play in the streets. 27. Some people are colour blind. They ought not to drive cars and buses. 28. 'Well,' Michael mumbled, 'I'm very glad to know at last what it was all about.' 'You ought to have been told before.' 29. Oughtn't you to be more careful? 30. When Charles saw Ann playing tennis, he came up and said, 'Are you sure you ought to be doing that?' 31. The responsibility is entirely mine. I acted very wrongly indeed. I ought not to have let this relationship start. 32. 'When is he going back?' 'How should I know?' 33. I'm the head of the noblest branch of the family and I ought to live up to it. 34. She will expect you to marry, Harry; a doctor ought to marry. 35. 'I ought to have told Soames,' he thought, 'that I think him comic.' 36. You should have left me alone. It's all I'm fit for. 37. They should be taught a lesson. 38. One should always eat muffins quite calmly. It is the only way to eat them. 39. You'd better stop taking these pills. 40. Your

daughter has a good voice. Her interest in singing should be encouraged.

II. Complete the conversations using ought to. Roleplay the conversations.

1. A university tutor is talking to one of her students. The student knows that he isn't working hard enough.

Tutor: This essay is useless. You simply haven't written enough.

Student: Yes, I know I ought to write more.

Tutor: It's typical, there's absolutely no evidence of any background reading.

Student: _______________________________________.

Tutor: Furthermore, I understand you go out every night.

Student:________________________________________.

2. Mr Fox, the editor of Euromode, works very hard and feels that he might be in danger of having a nervous breakdown because of the pressure of his work. He is talking to his wife.

Mr Fox: I don't know what's the matter with me. Mrs Fox: Too much work. You need a break, a rest, something to stop you worrying. Now if you took a

holiday ...

Mr Fox: Ought I to take a holiday, do you think? Mrs Fox: It would be a good idea. Work can affect your

health, you know. Why not see a doctor? Mr Fox: _______________________________, do you

think? Mrs Fox: Yes, I think you should. But have you told the

director you're worried about work?

Mr Fox: ______________________________________?

Mrs Fox: That's up to you, but it won't do any harm.

Another thing is that you do too much yourself.

You ought to get an assistant you know.

Mr Fox: ______________________________________?

Mrs Fox: Yes, then you could relax a bit more. On the

other hand, perhaps getting a new job would

help you.

Mr Fox: __________________________________?

Mrs Fox: Well ... I don't know about that. Now if you

stopped working for a bit ...

Mr Fox:______________________________________^?

Mrs Fox: A change is as good as a rest you know.

Mr Fox: Oh, you are marvellous! I don't know what I'd

do without you ...

III. Complete the advice using should or ought to; find the advice for the problems.

Example: 'I've lost my credit card.'

'You should report it to the credit card company immediately.'

'You ought to report it to the credit card company immediately.'

Problems	Advice
1. 'I've lost my credit card.'	'I think you/sell it.'
2. 'I can't wake up in the	'Perhaps you /look for another
mornings.'	job.'
3. 'I'm bored with my job.'	'Don't you think you/apologize
	to them?'
4. 'I've got a terrible head-	'Perhaps you/buy a new alarm
ache.'	clock.'
5. 'I was very rude to my	'You/report it to the credit card
parents. '	company immediately.'
6. 'My car keeps on breaking	'Perhaps you/take some aspirin.'
down. '
7. 'My sister's birthday is only	'You/go/to a dentist.'
a month away.'
8. 'I have a toothache.'	'I think you/buy a present/befo-
	rehand.'

IV. Criticize somebody you know using shouldn't or oughtn't.

Examples: You shouldn't eat so much.

Our teacher ought not to give us so much work.

V. Make up short dialogues using had better.

A: I haven't told Tom yet.

B: Then you'd better tell him today. (HAD here is normally contracted.)

I haven't ... yet.

1.	done the ironing	11. returned the books
2.	apologized	12. decided
3.	explained	13. suggested it
4.	applied	14. booked the seats
5.	enrolled	15. ordered the coal
6.	finished my essay	16. advertised the house
7.	washed the car	17. answered his letter
8.	mended the fuse	18. reported the accident
9.	fixed the aerial	19. renewed my license
10.	paid the rent	20. seen Tom about it