James E. Birren, Pairiene K. Robinson, Judy E. Livingston

This book reflects a truly multidisciplinary approach to health, employment, and ageing. It is directed specifically to professionals, researches and graduate students in the field of gerontology and employment related studies. Topics include age as a factor in coping with stress, early retirement trends, and the training of older workers together with specific topics in the complex relationships between either age and employment or age and health.

192 pp

XVI. Get ready to speak on the following topics:

1. Different views on the problem of heredity (in our country and abroad)

2. Infancy and childhood

3. Adolescence and the problems connected with this stage of human life

4. Adulthood

5. Old Age

XVII. Translate the following text from Russian into English:

Одно из направлений отечественной психологии — изучение проблемы личности. Российская психология утверждает, что пра­вильно судить о развитии у человека каких-либо качеств можно лишь тогда, когда знаешь, что оказывает воздействие на него. Не­обходимо также знать его отношение к деятельности и к тем це­лям, которые должны быть достигнуты. Это отношение зависит от восприятия и понимания окружающего мира. В.Н. Мясищев и его сотрудники внесли большой вклад в разработку проблемы отно­шений. Большую работу по вопросам формирования личности проводили Л.И.Божович и её сотрудники. Согласно их точке зре­ния, потребности и стремления субьекта играют ведущую роль в формировании личности.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Read after Lesson I.

THE GENERAL PLAN OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientist selects a tentative explanation as the beginning step in his enquiry, and this tentative suggestion is taken as a hypothesis, which directs the search for corroborative or negating facts. The hypothesis is merely a question. Each hypothesis is recognized as a question belonging to a larger family of questions.

An investigation is designed in such a way that it involves a direct, analysis of all the major conditions of the hypothesis. Preferably the investigation takes the form of an experiment , which is carried out under carefully controlled conditions during the systematic variation of one of these conditions in particular. These characteristics allow reproducibility of the conditions under which a given experiment is performed. When experimentation is impossible, however, the inves­tigator may employ other methods. Psychological science is founded upon, but not limited by, the experimental method.

If the results of the investigation are not controversial , the hypothesis may be confirmed (although not proved) and the next step involves tying together the results of a large number of scientifically tested propositions which have some system of relationship. The results of this last step may involve the formulation of a scientific law, which is merely a resume of a longer and more detailed description.

Another stage, although not an absolutely necessary one, is the orga­nization of a theory to account for the laws. The laws, as well as the the­ories, represent generalizations from which formal deductions can be made. These deductions are then set up as hypotheses for further scien­tific investigation. A particular law or theory is thus tested objectively to whether or not the things which it predicts (which may be deduced from it) are supported or discredited empirically. As more and more correct predictions are added for a particular theory or law, we say that truth is approached (not attained by the theory or law.)

К

The process of induction from empirical evidence always involves a treacherous step because the evidence is never complete. In testing a certain hypothesis about human behaviour, we can never study all humans but must obtain what is believed to be a «representative» sample from the hypothetical population of all humans. Generalizations are thus of necessity made on the evidence of partial evidence, and so they are made only as probable inferences. The degree of probability — or confidence — that can be attached to scientific inferences differs from one another, and to this extent the business of science is directed toward diminishing error in the general process of scientific problem solving.

Theory and experiment are the helpmates of scientific pursuit, theory suggesting the pattern of the maze, and experirrent determining the blind alleys and the short cuts. Whenever such a maze is found to be com­posed only of blind alleys, it is modified or discarded. To this extent the term science should be reserved to describe a body of verified knowledge , and the most satisfactory criterion of science is in terms of the method of verification. Knowledge of facts without knowledge of procedures to dis­cover the facts does not constitute science, and this is especially true in psychology. Knowing about the behaviour of people does not qualify one as a psychologist.

(«Methods of Psychology », edited byT.G. Andrews. N.Y., 1964,pp. 3—5)

Read after Lesson II.

A REFLEX ARC

Much of human behaviour is highly complex, difficult to predict or even to explain after it has taken place, but some elements in our behaviour are surprisingly stable and it is these which we shall now consider. As an example let us take the simple withdrawal reflex. Take a spoon from a hot cup of tea and place it unexpectedly on somebody's hand. The response takes place before the victim has time to think of what is happening to him and is quite involuntary. Responses such as these are dependent upon pre-formed'neurological connections and many of them function independently of the brain. If the spinal cord of the dog is cut just below the brain so that no nerve impulses can reach the brain it will still make a withdrawal response if its paw is pinched.

The net of neurological connections responsible for a simple response of this kind is known as a reflex arc. It is usual to think of a reflex arc as consisting of three nerve units or neurons: a sensory neuron which brings in a nerve impulse (e. g. from the skin), a connecting neuron in the spinal cord, and a motor neuron which conducts the nerve impulse out to

7-1756 97

■

a muscle (i.e. 'reflects' the impulse). This, however, is an over-simplifi­cation, because the more complex reflexes are concerned. Before going further into this let us pause for a moment to consider what a neuron is and how the nerve conducts impulses.

A nerve consists of a single nerve cell and may take many forms, but all consist of a central cell body which lengthens out into a long fibre (as much as several feet in some cases) and ends in fine branches. The other end of the cell body branches immediately into a fine network known as dendrites or dendrons. A nerve consists of a bundle of such neurons enclosed within a protective sheath except when they enter within the brain. The axon of one neuron branches within the dendrons of others so that it may pass on its impulse to any one of perhaps hundreds of other neurons with whose dendrons it has contact.

The point of contact between an axon and a dendron is known as a synapse and it is the relative amount of resistance at the various synap­ses which determines the route of the nerve impulse. Conduction through the synapse is relatively slow and may require as much time as the traversing of the complete neuron. Hence responses which are mediated through several synapses may be considerably delayed. The simple reflex is thus a very rapid response. In fact some of the reflex responses are just about ten times as fast as the quickest voluntary action, e.g. pressing a telegraph key on a given signal.

(C.J. Adcock. «Fundamentals of Psychology». Penguin Books, pp. 26 —27)

Read after Lesson III.