What is Diplomacy: An Academic Subject or Just Lifestyle?
Introduction
What is Diplomacy: An Academic Subject or Just Lifestyle?
Read the following essays of the first year students of Moscow State University and say if you agree or disagree with their points of view on diplomacy. Discuss what you understand under the word “diplomacy”.
Wars are won by words not weapons.
For centuries people have tried to solve their problems by negotiation. To escape conflicts and wars they have used words to persuade their opponents. That’s where diplomacy begins.
As is known to everyone, diplomacy is an intellectual activity and decision–making derived from on–going analysis of current situations. Diplomacy includes the combination of ways and abilities which any state can use for its worthy existence in the world and for establishing cooperation with other members of international community.
However who plays the main role in diplomacy? Of course it’s a diplomat.
A diplomat is the only person who can win the war by words, not weapons. That’s what makes him one of the most important people in any country’s government. I would also like to mention that not any diplomat is able to play and win the game of international intrigue. It’s common knowledge that a perfect diplomat should possess a combination of endless ingenuity, wit and common sense comparable to, for example, Confucius’s wisdom. Moreover, diplomats must be highly qualified experts to be able to solve any problem even in an unpredictable situation.
Once Abraham Lincoln said: “I don’t think much of people who are not flexible.” Flexibility is a very important quality of a diplomat.
Turning to my final point I should say that only the possession of all the characteristics I’ve mentioned above can turn an ordinary person into a professional diplomat and let him win any political game on national or international scale. (Olga Ignatyeva, Faculty of World Politics)
People Places (things) Activities Documents
Prepare short reports of 150-200 words on diplomacy and present them to the group.
Unit 1: A diplomat’s Image and Profile
READING and DISCUSSING
1. Read about Russian diplomat Alexander Gorchakov and discuss the following points:
a. When and where he was born
b. What his family life was
c. What education he got
d. What his professional experience was
e. What skills he had
f. What his personal qualities were
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
2. Match the words and phrases in bold to their meanings given below:
a.having a wide range of skills and abilities, able to change easily from one activity to another or be able to be used for many different purposes
b.having wisdom and showing quick and inventive verbal humor
c.providing (a place) with defensive works as protection against attack
d.thinking carefully about something before you say or do it
e.a delicate and skillful quality in the way you move or handle something;
f.make great efforts to achieve or obtain something
g.begin (a course or action)
h.warm and friendly
i.delay or hold back in terms of progress or development
j.confirming
k.beginning of war, fighting or any other undesirable things; started suddenly
l.a person or thing that succeeds another
m.the art of using language affectively
n.to deal successfully with a problem or difficulty; to lessen misunderstandings or irregularities
o.refuse to continue or recognize or abide by
3. Complete the following sentences with the correct words given below. Translate the sentences into Russian language (some words may be used twice):
fortify, successor, eloquence, cordial, strive, finesse, smooth, retard, circumspection, versatility, embark, reaffirm, renounce
1. In a statement, the Vatican said that during their “ ____________ conversations, the positive developments in bilateral relations were discussed and an agreement was reached to establish diplomatic relations between Malaysia and the Holy See”.
2. Peacekeepers are deployed to_______________existing truces or borders at the request of the government of a strife-torn country.
3. President Barak Obama hasn’t lost any of his_______________when it comes to describing the struggle going on in the lives of many Americans.
4. Welsh Labor MEP Derek Vaughan announced that he would _________________ to get the best deal for Wales.
5. The statement issued by the US state department said “Violence will not advance, but _______________, the hope for peace between Israelis and Palestinians, which currently is being pursued by the legitimate Palestinian government of President Abbas”.
6. European Union leaders have___________________their commitment to help Greece out of its current debt woes and maintain EU financial stability.
7. Gordon Brown resigned as prime minister. Newly appointed Prime Minister David Cameron and his deputy Nick Clegg were now free to ________________ on a journey into political unknown.
8. Col Gaddafi still believes he can _________________this situation.
9. Sonia Gandhi was propelled into the forefront of the Indian political scene as Rajiv was picked as the _________________to the Gandhi-Nehru crown.
10. It was Mr. Blair's "excessive_______________" that "caused Britain to miss the appointment" with the euro single currency.
11. ______________ of his talent as negotiator was recognized by the diplomatic community.
12. Germany is the biggest industrial power to ______________ nuclear energy, in a policy reversal for the governing centre-right coalition.
13. The House of Representatives’ leader Nancy Pelosi is expected to ensure enough Democrats vote for the bill to help _______________ its passage, analysts say.
LANGUAGE FOCUS
SMOOTH
e. Food and Drug Administration on Thursday approved the first drug to treat a rare genetic disorder that can lead to mental _______________
RETARD
f. Two bombs that exploded in quick ______________have left at least seven people dead in the Iraqi city of Ramala, officials say. SUCCESSOR
g. The European Union ministers stand for further _______________of the borders of Europe. FORTIFY
h. Gianfranco Fini, president of Italy's Chamber of Deputies, is a polished, intelligent and _____________ political operator. WIT
5. In the text you came across the phrases make friends with and break out. Match the following phrasal verbs and idioms with the verbs BREAK and MAKE to their explanations.
| a. break out b. break into c. to break someone in d. break off e. break through f. break up g. make a bomb (a bundle) h. make do with something i. make no bones about j. make it k. make ends meet | 1. to end; divorce 2. start suddenly (about war, fighting or similarly undesirable things); escape from the control of a person, group, or practice; 3. abruptly stop doing something especially speaking; to end a relationship or discussion 4. enter or open (a place, vehicle, container, etc.) forcibly, especially for the purposes to steal things; suddenly or unexpectedly burst into laughter or song; to start doing something; to interrupt someone when they are doing something, e.g. speaking
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TEXT A
TEXT B
Notes to the texts
1. The Institute of World Economics and International Relations (IMEMO) – институт Мировой Экономики и Международных Отношений
2. a foreign policy advisor – советник по внешней политике
3. Full Central Committee member and candidate member of the Politburo – член Центрального Комитета и кандидат в члены Политбюро ЦК КПСС
4. The Congress of People's Deputies – Совет Народных Депутатов СССР
5. Supreme Soviet –Верховный Совет
6. “New Thinking” – политика нового мышления
7. First Deputy Chairman of the KGB and head of foreign intelligence - Заместитель Председателя Комитета Государственной Безопасности и глава Внешней Разведки
8. foreign minister – министр иностранных дел
9. campaigned for Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater – принимала участие в избирательной кампании республиканского кандидата в Президенты Барри Голтвотера
10. to work on U.S. Senator Walter Mondale's subcommittee on migrant workers –… работать в под-комитете по делам иммигрантов при сенаторе Уолтере Мондейл
11. … became a member of the presidential impeachment inquiry staff, advising the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives during the Watergate Scandal – входила в группу юристов, которые консультировали юридический комитет Палаты представителей по вопросу импичмента президента Ричарда Никсона в ходе Уотергейтского скандала
12. Attorney General – генеральный прокурор
13. joined the Rose Law Firm- работала в юридической фирме Rose Law Firm
14. part-time chairman of the Legal Services Corporation – член правления Корпорации юридических услуг
15. the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee – комитет штата Арканзас по стандартам образования
16. co-founded the Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families – участвовала в создании организации «Защитники детей и семей штата Арканзас»
17. served on the boards ofthe Arkansas Children's Hospital, Legal Services and the Children's Defense Fund – заседала в правлении детской больницы штата, Корпорации юридических услуг и Фонда защиты детей
18. Secretary of State – Государственный Секретарь
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
8. Match the words or phrases in bold in passages A and B with their meanings given bellow:
Text A
a. take control of a country by means of military force;
b. political cleansing; an abrupt or sudden removal of a person or group from an organization or place
c. to persuade someone to make an agreement that suits you better;
d. to say publicly that you think someone or something is bad or wrong
e. have strict or extreme belief or opinions and not willing to change them
f. according to
g. to take up the post
h. someone who’s been chosen to do a particular job
i. to remain the post or position
j. supported by majority of votes
k. to give support to an idea, principle or belief
l. existence of three or more superpowers in world politics
m. to happen or exist immediately before something
n. stop existing
Text B
a. stand for presidential elections
b. teacher in a University
c. perform oneself as; become known or recognized
d. to be in charge of; to head
e. worked for
f. let a secret information become known;
g. participate in
h. very impressive
i. rich and successful
j. to leave the post or position
k. to give up one’s place to someone
l. the day on which a recently elected US President begins in the job
9. Complete the following sentences with the correct words or phrases given in the box and translate them into Russian language (some words may be used twice):
a. purge, b. assume, c. reveal, d. bargain, e. condemn, f. appointee,
g. chair, h. hard-line, i. concede
1. She has been invited to __________the post of director.
2. Russia has __________war in the Middle East.
3. A lot of people died in a __________by Stalinist regime.
4. The President’s ____________were condemned for corruption.
5. The statement was roundly ___________by members of the opposition party.
6. _________ party representatives demonstrated that they are not willing to change their views.
7. The decision making procedure in the EU is based on ____________
8. Jews and Slavic people were ______________during fascist regime.
9. A lot of secret diplomatic information was ___________ through Wiki leaks
10. At midnight, Ronald Reagan ____________ the election to his opponent.
11. Neither side ___________what was discussed in the meeting.
12. All questions must be addressed to the ___________.
9. Listen to recording about the US State Secretary Hillary Clinton’s biography (www.biography.com Hillary Clinton) and correct the statements given below:
1.Hillary Rodham was born and raised in Arkansas
2. Her father was a politician
3. In 1974 Hillary was involved in Watergate Scandal
4. After graduating Harvard Law School she became American First Lady
5. She began relationship with Bill Clinton in New-York in 1992
6. After Monica Levinsky Scandal Hillary divorced and stood for presidential
elections.
10. Which events concerning Evgeny Primakov and Hillary Clinton the following numbers refer to:
1986; December 1991; 1984; 1977; 1983-1999; 100; 1992; 2006; 1989; 1999; 21 January, 2009; the 1970s; August 1982; 1980; 1929; 1991; 2009; 1982; 1978; October 11, 1975; February 27, 1980; 32; 1973; 1969; 1971; 1964; 1968; October 26, 1947; January 1996; April 1989; August 1991; the 1950
LANGUAGE FOCUS
11. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the word in capitals
Example:China supported Russian condemnationof war in Iraq. CONDEMN
1. ___________ the situation in Egypt Russian ministry of Foreign Affairs decided to evacuate all Russian citizens from the conflict zone. ASSUME
2. The ___________of non – governmental international organizations has changed the functions of diplomacy. EMERGE
3. It’s illegal to use the fire alarm except in case of ______________EMERGE
4._______________ of future generations is one of the major goals proclaimed in the EU’s strategic policy. PROSPEROUS
5. He made it clear that he wasn’t _____________ from active politics. RESIGN
6. He announced his ______________ as Gorbachev’s senior advisor. RESIGN
7. A _______________ insight into the way a consulate works made him to change his decision. REVEAL
8. He has already been _______________ as a candidate to the post of Consul General. NOMINEE
9. They haven’t approved Robert’s ______________ as Foreign Secretary. NOMINATE
10. The President’s _____________ address was shown on TV. INAUGURATIAN
12. In Text A there’s an expression LEAD UP. Look at the following explanations of this and other uses of the word LEAD and complete the sentences below.
a. lead up – the period that comes before an important event;
b. lead off – to begin something by doing or saying something;
c. lead in- introduction; statement, action or short piece of film used for introducing something;
d. lead on – to encourage someone to do something or expect something, especially by lying to them or promising them something they cannot have;
e. lead somebody astray – to encourage somebody to do bad things that they would not normally do;
f. lead somebody a merry dance – to be a problem for somebody;
g. lead somebody by the nose – to use somebody in your own benefit;
h. to lead somebody up the garden path – to fool, trick somebody
1. Some politicians usually lead astray the voters promising them a lot of benefits.
2. In the lead up to the negotiations both sides agreed to avoid vulnerable points.
3. I believe their teenage daughter leads them a merry dance.
4. Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia led off the press conference.
5. The boy claimed that he had led on by his criminal companions.
6. He realized that she had been leading him up the garden path and had no intention of marrying him.
7. She leads her husband by the nose.
8. The lead in to the programme gives the main idea of party’s intentions.
CLOZE DEVELOPMENT
13. Look at the following list of qualities and match those which may be of great importance for a diplomatic career. Discuss with your partner in which situations the qualities you’ve chosen might be useful.
argumentative, sensitive, sociable, extravagant, assertive, inquisitive, adventurous, enterprising, provident, foreseeing, prudent, quick – witted, gregarious, eloquent, arrogant, full-of-oneself, fussy, willful, dutiful, obedient, timid
Example:
A: Diplomatic job involves dealing with people and I think he or she should be sociable but not fussy and extravagant.
B: I have never talked to diplomats but when I watch them on T.V., they look boring and full-of-themselves…
14. Choose from the following factors those which you consider absolutely necessary for diplomatic career. Speak about factors or qualities which are specific to a woman’s diplomatic career.
Background: social background; financial background; influential acquaintances;
Well-rounded education; relevant experience; qualifications; supportive family; experience of other cultures
People skills: positive image; popularity among colleagues; sensitivity to others’ feelings; team spirit; competitive spirit; ability to delegate; willingness to compromise; having contact with superiors
Other personal qualities: ambition; determination; resilience; powers of intuition; persistence; enjoy challenges; attractive appearance; charisma; self-motivation; natural talent; ruthlessness; ability to seize opportunities
15. Read and write the translation of the following text. Compare the qualities necessary for a diplomat given here with those you’ve chosen in exercises 9 and 10
The Art of Diplomacy
People involved in diplomacy must be able to bridge many differences- cultural, geopolitical and ideological - as well as conflicting state interests of all kinds, including strategic concerns. Career diplomats are prepared to be posted abroad; they are trained for it and, over the years, learn from experience.
The most useful attributes that are needed for diplomatic career are probably interpersonal skills, particularly communication. Good verbal skills are an asset, especially when assorted with a good working knowledge of foreign languages. Important multilateral meetings may be equipped for simultaneous translation. But there is always a good deal of consultation and communication to be undertaken outside from formal meetings and without the benefit of interpreter. Patience is insufficiently appreciated in modern societies. It may be true that some international issues require fast action. But hasty decisions can be counterproductive. Diplomats often have a hard time convincing their superiors back home that they must wait a more propitious moment to approach delicate questions. What is more, many cultures do not attach the same importance to the clock as do industrial societies.
Tact and circumspection are useful in approaching important foreign officials. Formality and concern for protocol, too, remain characteristic of official relations, although the trend toward fewer rigors, particularly in international organizations. Adaptability is helpful. Negotiations may be demanding. Self-control and an ability to size up a situation or one’s counterpart are important, although the stakes will not always be high. There is no substitute for experience. Imagination is of great value to creating alternatives to conflicting positions and finding common ground.
Compromise may be the essence of diplomacy, but one’s superiors back home frequently control what negotiations can do in this respect. Ideological stances foster rigidity. In most situations the development of trust with one’s counterparts is a valuable asset. But friendship, respect and trust cannot be achieved overnight. Enmity or friction between international actors will complicate interpersonal relationships. Periods of tension can create polarization, making interpersonal relations more difficult. In conference work and other temporary assignments, diplomats hope to find people with whom they have already had constructive relations in earlier assignments. International networking is useful and frequently sought. But one problem in the development of lasting relations is relatively frequent rotation of diplomatic personnel that many governments favor, which means moving to a new post every three years or so. And with every move comes the need to build a new set of contacts and relationships.
16. Discuss the following questions:
a. What kind of interests must people involved in diplomacy get rid of?
b. What are the most useful attributes that diplomats should have?
c. What kind of decisions might be counterproductive in diplomatic work?
d. What is the essence of diplomacy?
e. What might complicate interpersonal relations between international actors?
f. What forms of practices are undertaken outside from formal meetings?
g. How does frequent rotation of diplomatic personnel influence a set of contacts and relations that have already been achieved.
17. Find English equivalents for the following lexical units:
a. Идеологические установки способствуют жесткости и непреклонности позиций.
b. враждебность или разногласия;
c. преодолеть множество разногласий;
d. находить альтернативы конфликтным ситуациям;
e. ценное качество
f. более походящий (благосклонный) момент;
g. ставки;
h. убеждая вышестоящие инстанции;
i. в совокупности с;
j. оценить ситуацию;
k. подготовлены к работе заграницей
l. такт и осторожность
m. контр-продуктивный
GENERALIZATION
18. Prepare individual or group presentations about the following diplomats (add any other names if necessary):
a. Alexandra Kollontai
b. Andrei Gromyko
c. Austin Chamberlain
d. Henry Kissinger
e. Wilhelm Humboldt
f. Maxim Litvinov
g. William Hague
h. Sergey Lavrov
i. Alexander Vershbow
j. Georgy Chicherin
19. A ROLE PLAY.Imagine that one of you is the newly appointed British Ambassador to Russia Timothy Barrow. (Information on “your” biography is given in supplementary unit). You are giving a press conference in the British Embassy in Moscow
The other members of the group are journalists working for different media and invited to the press conference. Ask questions about Timothy Barrow’s profile.
Example: T.B.:“I’m very pleased to be returning to Russia. I have good memories of working in Moscow in the early 90-s. I look forward to getting to know again this vast and dynamic country and to continuing the steady work of developing relations between our two countries…Today It is a great pleasure for me to answer your questions about our future work in Russia….”
J. :Good morning Mr. Barrow. My name is Peter Maximov, the “Moscow Times.” Mr. Barrow, why have you decided to return to Russia? I mean, do you have any special attitudes or motives?
UNIT II: The Subject Matter and Functions of Diplomacy
READING and DISCUSSING
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
3. Match the words and phrases in bold to their meanings given below:
a.careful behavior; the right or ability to make a judgment or decision;
b.to arrange a law or rule into a systematic code, to introduce the term, phenomenon (in science);
c.a particular area of knowledge, experience, interest, sphere, field;
d.to take action to deal with a difficult situation;
e.a representative of a government or organization who is sent to another country to deal with a particular situation
f.to experience a process of change
g.the use of methods that produce an immediate result or solution to a problem
h.to be directly related to something
i.able to notice and understand things quickly and easily
j.including a lot of people or things; to include or surround an area completely
k.to suggest that you think something without saying it directly, to mean, to suggest, to hint
l.to keep somebody or something within particular limits; to prevent something dangerous from spreading; to keep to; to adhere to;
m.exchange or interaction between people; published reports or proceedings at the meetings of a learned society
n.interconnection
o.making something (plan, idea, system, law) start to work
LANGUAGE FOCUS
CLOSE DEVELOPMENT
8. Read Ann Pringle’s (former British Ambassador in Russia) speech at the press conference in the British Embassy in Moscow. Decide if the following statements are true or false:
a. Ann Pringle is the Foreign Secretary of Great Britain
b. She arrived in Russia for diplomatic negotiations
c. She presented copies of her Credentials to Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia Mr. Lavrov
d. She wants to keep this press-conference fairly brief
e. She started her career in Washington
f. She wants to understand in what way Russia has changed since the 90-s
g. The relationship between Great Britain and Russia is complicated
h. In some areas of policy Russia and Britain hold the same opinions
Good morning, welcome to the British Embassy, and thank you all for coming.
I’m very pleased to see so many of you here; the fact that you’re all here demonstrates to me that your audiences are interested to hear about what this Embassy is doing in Russia, and more broadly about the UK Government’s policy dealings with Russia and with the rest of the world.
I arrived in Russia on 6 October and I’m thrilled to be here. As Interfax reported, I presented copies of my Credentials to Deputy Minister Titov on 13 October.
I want to keep this press conference fairly brief. But at the same time I think it’s important for you to know who I am, and to hear my initial thoughts about my objectives here as the British Ambassador to Russia.
I started my career here in Moscow in 1980 at the old UK Embassy on what was then called Naberezhnaya Morisa Toreza, I spent three fascinating years here, then in the late 1990’s headed the Foreign Office department in London responsible for policy towards the CIS. I’ve wanted this job for a very long time.
Obviously Russia has changed tremendously in the time I’ve been away: the transformation in Moscow alone is amazing. I’m looking forward to getting under the skin of that change, and to finding out what makes present – day Russia and its leaders and regional governors’ tick. But to be effective Ambassador I can’t confine myself to life inside the Garden Ring, so I’m already making plans to visit key regions and see first hand what progress is being made. In fact, as soon as this press conference is over, I’m heading to Vnukovo to catch a flight to Khanty – Mansisk.
Let me talk a little about the relationship between the UK and Russia. It’s tremendously broad relationship. I’m sure you’ve all heard the statistics many times – 300,000 Russians now living in London, 150,000 Russian visitors to the UK each year, 20% year-on-year growth in bilateral trade, 18,000 Russian students in the UK… and not to mention the artistic, sporting and cultural ties between two countries. There can be no better example of this than the forthcoming opening of the Turner Exhibition at the Pushkin museum.
It’s also complex relationship. But – and this is probably the most important thing I have to say – it’s a relationship which both British and Russian governments firmly believe is worth working on.
There are always going to be certain areas of policy where the respective governments don’t see eye to eye. It’s my job to make sure we talk through those areas frankly so that they don’t derail the broader relationship. At the same time, we need to make the most of the potential to cooperate with each other on areas of common interest
9. Find in the text synonymous words or phrases for the following explanations:
a. a senior official who lives in a foreign country and represents his or her own country there
b. to hold exactly the same opinion
c. to keep oneself within particular place
d. the feelings and ideas that make someone behave the way they do
e. a formal paper from the head of one state to the head of another accrediting an ambassador, minister or other diplomatic agent as one authorized to act for his government or head of state
f. two – sided
g. to understand something
10. Discuss the following points:
a. What are the main issues of the press conference?
b. What personal information does Mrs. Pringle give?
c. What does she say about Russian-British relations?
d. What are her plans for the future?
GENERALIZATION
11. A ROLE PLAY.Imagine that one of you is Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and you are giving a press conference in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia in Moscow. Prepare short speech on the latest event (www.mid.ru) that you participated in. Be ready to answer the questions on recent world news and your attitude to them. The other members of the group are journalists working for different media and invited to the press conference.
Example: J.Good morning Mr. Lavrov. My name is Michal Pringle, the “International Herald Tribune”. My first question is about the situation in Lebanon. What is the principal position and attitude of Russia to this conflict?
READING and DISCUSSING
1. Read the following extract and discuss the questions given bellow:
The continuity of the diplomatic institution throughout thousands of years and in all known civilizations shows that diplomacy is an institution inherent to international life itself, one that may undergo transformations or may be used with more or less intensity, but cannot be dispensed with.
Jose Calvet De Magalhaes
a. How long has diplomacy been developing?
b. Which civilization was diplomacy developed in?
c. Has it undergone any changes?
d. Why diplomacy cannot be dispensed with?
2. Read and translate the first part of the text paying special attention to the words in bold and italicized lexical units:
Part 1
The concept of diplomacy goes farther back than does recorded history and ideas relating to this phenomenon have arisen in many primitive societies. For example, the idea of diplomatic immunity is known among the Australian aborigines. A study of the diplomacy of primitive peoples encompassing societies in Australia, Asia, Africa and the Americas showed familiarity with ideas such as messengers and envoys to maintain intertribal relations. Some had beliefs that messengers are in possession of protecting taboo that should not be violated. Others received envoys and their messages according to a given ceremonial. Messengers were often selected not from among expendable membersof society, but from the leading men or women of the tribe.
Due to a lack of a preserved written record, very little is known about diplomacy in ancient history. While few in number, there are references to diplomatic concepts across many societies, such as the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese and the Hindus.
Documents dating back to ancient Egypt describe the exchange of envoys between the Egyptian pharaohs and neighboring monarchs. In addition to these descriptions, a treaty dating to 1278 BC between the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities, was found.
Thanks to a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700’s BC, there is a plentiful record of envoys between Assyria, Babylon and Elam during the reign of Assurbanipal ofAssyria,which lasted until 626 BC.
The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date from the 1st millennium BC. By the 8th century BC, the Chinese had leagues, missions and organized system of polite discourse between their many “warring states”, including resident envoys who served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them. The sophisticated essence of ancient Chinese diplomatic system is best captured by the advice of Zhuangzi to envoys and messengers (diplomats) at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. He advised them that if relations between states are close, they may establish mutual trust through daily interaction; but if relations are distant, mutual confidence can only be established by exchanges of messages. Messages must be conveyed by messengers (diplomats). Their contents may be either pleasing to both sides or likely to engenderanger between them. Faithfully conveying such messages is the most difficult task under the heavens, for if the words are such as evokea positive response on both sides, there will be the temptation to exaggerate them with flattery and, if they are unpleasant, there will be a tendency to make them even more biting. In either case, the truth will be lost. If truth is lost, mutual trust will also be lost and the messenger himself may be imperiled. I say to you that it is a wise rule: “always to speak the truth and never to embellish it. In this way, you will avoid much harm to yourselves.”
This tradition of equal diplomatic dealings between contending states within China was ended by the country’s unification under Qin emperor in 221 BC and the consolidation of unity under the Han dynasty in 206 BC. Under the Han and succeeding dynasties, China emerged as the largest, most populous, technologically advanced and best governed society in the world. Being so powerful and self-esteemed Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than venturing abroad themselves. This “tributary system” lasted until European colonialism overwhelmed it and introduced to Asia European concepts sovereignty, suzerainty, spheres of influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions and practices.
Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was described in the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya. It should be emphasized that Kautilya was the principal adviser to Chandra Gupta Mauraya, the founder of the Mauray dynasty who ruled in the 3rd century BC. “Artha-shastra” posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion and coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force and double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic points, ancient India fielded three categories of diplomats: plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and royal messengers. Besides, there were consular agents who were charged with managing commercial relations and transactions. In addition two kinds of spies were charged with the collection of intelligence, subversion and other forms of covert action.
Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of an envoy” as sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty, upholding his king’s honor, acquiring allies, instigating dissention among the friends of his enemy, conveying secret agents and troops (into enemy territory), suborningthe kinsmen of the enemy to his own king’s side etc. He admits that no envoys should ever be harmed, and even if they deliver an “unpleasant” message, they should not be detained.
Some elements of Hindu’s ancient diplomacy have been remained through centuries and are exercised in modern diplomatic system of India and other states.
Notes to the Text
the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese, the Hindus – египтяне, ассирийцы, вавилоняне, древние иудеи, китайцы, индусы;
- the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities – египетский фараон Рамзес II и король хеттов Хатурси II;
- a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700’s BC – клинописная библиотека, основанная ассирийским царем Шаррум – кен («царь Истинный»);
- Elam – Элам («возвышенная страна») - семитское название древнего государства, расположенного на востоке Вавилонии и Ассирии и соответствовавшее позднейшей Персии с Мидией;
- The reign of Assurbanipal ofAssyria, which lasted until 626 BC – период правления (царствования) царя Ассирии Аширбанипала, который длился до 676 года до Рождества Христова;
Zhuangzi – Чжуан – цзы – китайский философ, живший в 4 в. до н. э. в эпоху «Сражающихся царств» и входивший в число ученых «Ста школ»;
Qin emperor – император Цинь Ши Хуанди, основатель первого централизованного государства в Китае;
Under the Han and succeeding dynasties – во время правления Хань и последующих династий;
“ tributary system” – система зависимости
the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya, the principal adviser of Chandra Gupta Mauraya – «Артхашастра» («Наука о пользе» на санскрите), сводный трактат по науке управления и политике, приписываемый Каутилье – министру основателя династии мауриев Чандрагупта I
expendable members – обычные члены общества
3. Decide if the following statements are true or false:
a. Some attributes of diplomatic practice may be found in primitive societies of Australia, Asia, Africa, etc.
b. Ancient peoples believed that messengers and envoys shouldn’t be violated.
c. Messengers were selected from among ordinary members of society.
d. In 1278 BC there was found a treaty between the pharaoh Ramses II and the King of Hebrews.
e. The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date back to the 2d millennium BC.
f. In China envoys served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them.
g. The Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi advised that mutual trust between the states may be established only through messages.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
4. Match the words and phrases in bold from the first part of the text with their meanings given below:
a. Attracting, b. is best expressed by, c. the action of destroying or damaging an established system, belief or government by attacking it indirectly in written or spoken ways, d. to end a disagreement peacefully, e. to make people have a particular feeling or make a situation start to exist, f. competing states, g. excessive and insincere praise, h. the use of force or threats to make someone do something, i. working to someone’s disadvantage behind his (her) back, j. to win to one’s side, k. proceeding risky journeys, l. incite somebody to do something, m. disagreement; discord; contention, n. put at risk of being harmed, injured or destroyed; endanger, o. methods or ways of doing something, p. governing, q. to call up, r. lure, s. excessive or insincere praise, t. to represent something as being better, larger or worse than it really is
5. Complete the following sentences with the given words or phrases. Translate them into Russian language:
expendable, seduction, double – dealing, suborn, imperil, evoke, temptation, expedients, conciliation, engender, flattery, coercion, subversion
a. We must therefore resist the easy B_____________of unilateral action.
b. Most employees feel that management sees them as C ________________.
c. Hearings in State Duma on corruption problems D _______________little trust among public.
d. The old house E______________memories from his childhood.
e. He was sentenced to five years in prison for inciting F _______________of state power.
f. US investigators say they have found “indicators” of exploitation and
G______________of low – level staff at US missions in four Gulf countries.
g. America is in two wars and H __________________Pakistan can’t be regarded as our ally in Afghanistan.
h. Mr. Bloomberg, an independent, said that failing to raise debt limit would
J_______________ America’s status as a superpower.
i. Over the past two decades, North Korea has swung between confrontation and inch – by – inch K_______________ with its neighbors and the United States. (IHT)
j. The political and intellectual elite of Norway stressed the importance of resisting the L ___________________ to respond to the fear by increasing the intolerance of those from the world outside.
k. Drug dealers use the vast sums at their disposal to M_______________ police and customs forces.
l. The warmth of coverage of the North Korean leader’s visit, and the
N _______________of official comments by China, gave Mr. Kim much – needed political support, analysts said.
m. She went to every O ______________ in order to get citizenship in the USA.
6. Answer the following questions:
a. Who maintained intertribal relations in primitive societies?
b. How was the modern concept of diplomatic immunity exercised by primitive peoples?
c. What diplomatic practices are described in ancient Egyptian and Assyrian documents?
d. What forms of diplomacy were practiced in ancient China?
e. How did the Chinese use envoys in the 8th century BC?
f. What advice did the Chinese philosopher Zuangzi give to envoys?
g. What kind of diplomatic system was developed in China under the Qin and Han dynasties?
h. Which document is the ancient diplomacy of India described in?
i. What categories of diplomats were recognized in ancient India?
j. Who were charged with the collection of intelligence and subversion in Indian diplomacy?
k. What were the duties of envoys in India?
Part 2
The tradition that inspired the birth of modern diplomacy in Europe began in ancient Greece. The earliest diplomats of Greece were heralds, references to whom can be found in the Homeric period (the 8th century BC). The heralds were official agents of negotiation and were chosen for such qualifications as a good memory and a loud voice. According to Greek mythology heralds were protected by the gods with an immunity that other envoys lacked. Their protector was Hermes, the messenger of the gods, who was noted for persuasiveness, eloquence, charm, cunning and trickery. Because heralds were inviolable, they were the favoured channels of contact in wartime. They preceded envoys to arrange for safe passage. Whereas heralds traveled alone, envoys journeyed in small groups, to ensure each other’s loyalty. They usually were politically prominent figures and at least 50 years old. Only the best orators were chosen to be envoys.
As relations between the Greek city-states became more sophisticated, so did the qualifications for diplomatic relations. By the 6th century BC, the Greeks had implemented a system of continuous diplomatic relations based on consular agents (proxeni). Consular agents were citizens of the city in which they resided, not of the city state that employed them. Like envoys, they had a secondary task of gathering information, but primary responsibility was trade. The Greeks developed archives, a diplomatic vocabulary, principles of international conduct that anticipated international law, and many other elements of modern diplomacy. The Greeks practiced diplomatic conferences and congresses. For example conferences which took place in Sparta in 432 BC included such “modern” concepts as making speeches, debates, proposing motions and carrying out votes. In one 25 – year period of the 4th century BC, for instance, there were eight Greco – Persian congresses, where even the smallest states had the right to be heard.
The Greek system of diplomacy acted as a foundation for the Roman Republic, which grew over the next several centuries and became the Roman Empire in 27 BC. The contribution of Romans to diplomacy was not to its practice, but to its theory. During the Roman Republic foreign policy was conducted by the Senate alongside with the department of foreign affairs. Later, under the Empire, the emperor was the ultimate decision maker in foreign affairs. Envoys were received with ceremony and magnificence, and they and their aides were granted immunity. Roman envoys were sent abroad with written instructions from their government. For larger responsibilities a legatio (embassy) of 10 or 12 legati was organized under a president.
The Romans stressed the importance of adhering to agreements and treaties. Rather than producing skilled negotiators, the Romans produced skilled archivistswho specialized in diplomatic procedures. Thus, the Roman diplomat was more an administrator than a negotiator.
When the western Empire disintegrated in the 5th century ad, most of its diplomatic traditions were adopted and developed by the eastern half of the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) and the papacy. The Roman Catholic church conducted an active diplomacy, especially at Constantinople. Popes served as arbiters, and papal legates served as peacemakers. The prestige of the church was such that at every court papal emissaries took precedence over secular envoys. This tradition continues up to now in countries where Roman Catholicism is the official religion. From the 6th century, both legates and (lesser-ranking) nuncii (messengers) carried letters of credence to assure the rulers to whom they were accredited of the extent of their authority as agents of the pope, a practice later adopted for lay envoys. A nuncius (English nuncio) was a messenger who represented and acted legally for the pope; nuncio could negotiate draft agreements but could not commit the pope without referral. In time, the terms legate and nuncius came to be used for the diplomatic representatives of secular rulers as well as the pope. By the end of the 12th century the secular use of nuncio as diplomatic agents was commonplace.
When diplomacy was confinedto nearby states and meetings of rulers were easily arranged, a visiting messenger such as nuncius sufficed. However, as trade revived, negotiations at a distance became increasingly common. Envoys no longer could refer the details of negotiations to their masters on a timely basis. They therefore needed the discretionary authority to decide matters on their own. To meet this need, in the 12th century the concept of a procurator with plena potens (full powers) was revived from Roman civil law. This plenipotentiary could negotiate and conclude an agreement, but, unlike a nuncius, he could not represent his principal ceremonially. As a result, one emissary was often given both offices.
Answer the questions
a. What were the functions of heralds in Homeric Greece?
b. Who was the protector of heralds?
c. What features was Hermes noted for?
d. How were the qualifications of diplomatic relations in Greece changed in the 6th century BC?
e. What does the term “proxeni” stand for?
f. Which concepts included diplomatic conferences in Sparta in 432 BC?
g. What was the contribution of Romans to diplomatic practice?
h. What does the term “legatio” mean?
i. Whom did Romans produce: skilled negotiators or skilled archivists?
j. What does archivists do?
k. Who were papal emissaries in the 6th century ad?
l. What were the functions of nuncio?
m. What does the term “plena potens” mean?
n. What were the duties of plenipotentiary?
Part 3
Термин «ambassador» (посол) впервые появился во Франции в конце 13 века.
Великобритания стала первой страной, которая отправила постоянного представителя в Испанию в 1847 году.
В своем «Политическом Завещании» Кардинал Ришелье отмечал, что целью дипломатии является установление краткосрочных отношений между странами. Он первым ввел понятие «национальный интерес»
В 16 веке статус дипломата зависел от страны, которую он представлял. Дипломаты того периода не должны были иметь большие резиденции и устраивать щедрые приемы.
С 17 века английский становится официальным языком дипломатии.
В соответствии с Венским Конгрессом 1518 года дипломатия была признана самостоятельной профессией многими странами.
Одним из самых известных мирных предложений после первой Мировой войны является послание американскому Конгрессу «Четырнадцать пунктов» Вудро Вильсона 1918 года. Первый пункт послания гласит, что открытые мирные переговоры не очень эффективны, и необходимо использовать «секретную» дипломатию.
Идеи многосторонней дипломатии были развиты только с появлением ООН.
At the end of the 12th century, the term ambassador appeared, initially in Italy. Derived from the medieval Latin ambactiare, meaning “to go on a mission”, the term was used to describe various envoys.
Venice, Milan and Mantua played a leading role, in the development of permanent embassies: these cities sent resident ambassadors to each other, to the popes and to the Holy Roman emperors. Among the well known ambassadors were Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli.
From Italy the practice was spread to the other European powers. Milan was the first to send the representative to the French court of Luis XI in 1463. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of England in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary.
Although the profession of diplomat started with the Italians, it was the French who began to create the very early framework for modern diplomacy. In the 1600’s, Cardinal Richelieu made significant advances in diplomatic theory and practice. He stated in his Political Testament that diplomacy should be a continuous process aimed at creating durable relationships rather than attempting to make opportunistic advances. It was Cardinal Richelieu who established the first foreign ministry in 1626. He pursued the concept of raison d’etat (national interest). At the time, this was an important shift of the emphasis and purpose of diplomacy.
During that period the rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation.
Up until the 18th century, the language of diplomacy was Latin. Diplomats both wrote and conversed in Latin; documents such as the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), the Anglo-Danish Treaty of 1670 and the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1674 were all drafted in Latin. During the 18th century the French repeatedly tried to have French as the language of diplomacy. Though the idea was disliked by other European powers, by the middle of the 18th century French become de facto the language of diplomacy and at the Congress of Vienna (1815) and Congress of Paris (1856) all proceedings were conducted in French. It was only at the Paris Conference of 1918-19 that an English text – the Treaty of Versailles – was recognized as official.
Diplomacy was conducted by statesmen and politicians until the beginning of the 19th century. It was not until after the Congress of Vienna in 1815 that diplomatic service was recognized as a profession unto itself in various countries.
The next major revolution in diplomacy came with the end of the World War I. The most famous of all peace proposals following World War I was the program of Fourteen Points, delivered by American President Woodrow Wilson in 1918. Two of the fourteen points were: open covenants openly arrived at (which implied an end to “secret” diplomacy) and the establishment of a League of Nations.
It should be underlined that before the establishment of a League of Nations, diplomacy was conducted between individual representatives of nations or for larger treaties at congresses (bilateral diplomacy). The new idea accompanying the League of Nations and carried later to the United Nations was diplomacy through a somewhat permanent state of conference between representatives of many nations.
This system of “multilateral diplomacy” is still practicing today; diplomatic relations are presently regulated according to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, a document that was written in 1961 and was adopted in 1964.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
11. Match the words and phrases in bold from the second and third parts of the text with their meanings given below:
a. complicated, b. someone whose job is to collect and store historical documents and records, c. couldn’t act without pope’s permission, d. he adhered the concept of, e. deception, f. secure from violation or profanation, g. to satisfy or be enough, h. the art of using language affectively, i. two - sided relations, j. having the power to convince, k. limited, enclosed, l. on time, m. having many sides, involving more than two parties of negotiations, n. left to or regulated by one’s own judgment or power, o. long – standing, constant relations, p. an attempt to get timeserving benefits
12. Fill in the blanks using the following words. Translate the sentences into Russian language:
durable, referral, inviolable, pursued, opportunistic, sophisticated, letters of credence, persuasiveness, discretionary, suffice, nuncio, confine, trickery, eloquence, archivists
a. The construction of a coherent and A_______________coalition will be an uphill task to the leader of the Liberals, Mark Rutte.
b. Human Rights Watch in its annual report criticized US President of lacking his famed B______________when defending human rights in bilateral contexts with China, India and Indonesia.
c. The Foreign Secretary’s replies at his news conference lacked enthusiasm and C _________________.
d. She said:”We demand a full and public inquiry that was promised into all this, and nothing less will D _______________”.
e. Opposition party accused the Government in budget E_________________.
f. G ______________and conservators at New York Public library are restoring enormous collection of Civil War documents from the US Sanitary Commission.
g. The military want to re-open the square to the public and
H____