Relevant and convincing support

Script 14

Search sources

There are several types of search resources, some free, some fee based most now provided on the Internet. However, before leaping into discussion of electronic search resources, you will be wise to take the time to undertake some preliminary, more traditional steps that will help you understand what you are looking for and recognize it when you see it in search output.

1. Do not to start with computer searches. Doing so may lead to your being inundated with large numbers of references, while you are still ill-prepared to evaluate their significance.

2. Start instead with one or more recent articles or conference papers, perhaps recommended to you by your faculty advisor. If your advisor or department is associated with work in the area you are studying, start with reports and articles emanating from your own department.

3. In your starting articles, notice which other articles and books seem to be cited most frequently and are most central. You may wish to consult relevant textbook chapters as an additional way of identifying classic or central works germane to your topic. Read these other articles and books too, noting what relevant works they cite.

4. Use the Web of Sciencedatabase to find out which later papers have cited the articles you are starting with, and read the more promising of these as well.

After you have undertaken these four steps, you are prepared to use electronic search engines to conduct an electronic bibliographic search. Make sure to look up abstracts of recent and forthcoming conference papers, as this will give you the most up-to-date information.

(G. David Garson Guide to writing empirical papers, theses, and dissertations New York, 2002)

Outlining

Script 15

Can you imagine a construction manager working on a skyscraper without a set of blueprints? No way! Similarly, writers construct essays using sets of blueprints or outlines to guide them in the writing process. Of course writers don't have to use outlines, but the effect is about the same as a construction worker who "free builds."

Drawing up an outline allows you to think before you write. What use is there in writing the entire paper only to realize that, had you done a little more planning beforehand, you would have organized your essay in an entirely different way? What if you realize later, after free-writing the essay, that you should have omitted some paragraphs, restructured the progression of your logic, and used more examples and other evidence?

You can go back and try to insert major revisions into the essay, but the effect may be like trying to add a thicker foundation to a building already constructed. The outline allows you to think beforehand what you're going to write so that when you do write it, if you've done your planning right, you won't have to do as much rewriting. (You will still, of course, need to revise.)

When you construct your outline, keep it brief. The titles, headings, and points in your outline should be about one line each. Remember that you are only drawing an outline of the forest, not detailing each of the trees. Keep each line under a dozen words. If you can't compress your point into a one-liner, you probably don't have a clear grasp of what you're trying to say.

(http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/outline.htm)

Script 16

Drawing up an outline allows you to see at a glance how each of the paragraphs perfectly fits into the larger picture. When looking at your paragraphs from this perspective, you can easily shift around the order to see how reorganization might be better. Remember that each paragraph in the essay should support the position or convincing argument of your paper.

As you're shifting paragraphs around (maybe like you would a Rubik’s cube), you will probably begin to wonder what the best arrangement really is. In general, put what you want the attentive reader to remember either first or last, not in the middle. Studies in rhetoric have shown the readers remember least what is presented in the middle of an essay. Hence, the middle is where you should probably put your weaker arguments and weaker counterarguments.

Some writers urge a climactic arrangement, one that works up to your strongest point, which is delivered as a kind of grand finale. Another successful arrangement is the inductive argument, in which you build up the evidence first, and then draw conclusions. A problem-solution format involves presenting the problem first and then outlining the solution – this works well for some topics because it is a soft version of the scientific method. Whatever your choice, choose an arrangement that absolutely presents a clear, logical argument.

(http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/outline.htm)

Unit 4

Direct quotation

Script 17

The purpose of using direct quotation is to show the writers exact words. Therefore, you must copy the passage word for word. Do not make any changes to the text. To indicate that the passage is a direct quotation, use punctuation rules. Pay close attention to the use of capitalization and the placement of punctuation marks.

Once you have learned how to correctly punctuate direct quotations, it may become tempting to use them a great deal. However, direct quotations are used sparingly in academic writing.

(Leonhard, B., (2003) Discoveries in Academic Writing, University of Missouri-Columbia)

Paraphrasing

Script 18

Rules for Effective Paraphrasing

Peter: Well, Alice, lots of helpful advice here…

Alice: Do you mean this article «Rules for Effective Paraphrasing»?

Peter: Quite so. Listen to the first one: refer to the author and text whenever you paraphrase from a source.

Alice: So, it should be written: according to + author's name + in + name of source/text + main clause. Am I right?

Peter: Absolutely!

Alice: And, have a look! It is written here: Do not say "I think . . ." or use other wording to imply that an idea that came from a specific source is your own opinion. Do not claim the author's ideas as your own even if you agree with the author.

Peter: The author of the article advices: research and take notes carefully; do not misuse the sources. Take notes in your own words (e.g., outlines), summarize, and keep accurate records of each source (author[s], title of publication, and page numbers).

Alice: Yes, that’s really a good piece of advice! But, I think, it’s more important to copy the material in the proper way. If you copy anything word for word, use quotation marks, copy accurately, and acknowledge the source accurately.

Peter:And what’s more important – to maintain the original meaning of the passage.

Alice:So, you mean the writer should be accurate?!

Peter:Quite so. And he is to keep the same tone: serious, humorous or sarcastic.

Alice:And what about ideas of your own? I think one should not add his own ideas, examples, details, or other forms of support to a paraphrase or summary.

Peter:That’s right! Do not try to follow the original text word for word. Get the general idea and put it in your own words. Put the text out of sight! That may help prevent you from copying or paraphrasing too closely.

Alice:The point is that if you truly understand the text, you will have less trouble paraphrasing than if you do not understand the text.

Peter:I agree with you. Now, I think, we know rules for effective paraphrasing much better.

Alice:Quite so!

(Based on Leonhard, B., (2003) Discoveries in Academic Writing, University of Missouri-Columbia)

Summarizing

Script 19

A summary contains the main ideas of the original document. Depending on the method of development used by the writer, it might include major examples. Sometimes a summary contains indirect quotation, but it usually does not contain direct quotation. Therefore, do not use direct quotation of the original wording.

A summary should be written in your own words. You should not use the original wording. Instead, you should read the original article, book, report, and so on carefully in order to understand the author’s ideas. Make an outline of the text in your own words. Use phrases in the outline. Then use your own words to say what the author wrote.

A summary contains the attitude and opinion of the author, so do not let your opinion interfere with the ideas you are summarizing. Also, do not add any ideas to the summary that are not in the text being summarized. Do not elaborate with details not used in the original passage.

A summary should be concise, accurate, clearly written, complete, and well organized. It should also reflect your ability to understand the meanings of words, the author's attitude, and any implied meanings.

In a summary, never criticize or judge the writer in any way. A summary is not a critique, response, or editorial.

(Leonhard, B. (2003) Discoveries in Academic Writing, University of Missouri-Columbia)

Plagiarism

Script 20

Part 1

Plagiarism can happen for many reasons.

Deliberate plagiarism.

a. This is when you make the decision to steal someone else's work. For example, this could be either: because you do not have the time to do the work yourself;

b. because you do not have the energy to do the work yourself;

c. because you think your lecturer will not notice;

d. because you think your lecturer will not care;

e. or, perhaps, because you are not able to do the work yourself.

(http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/plagiar/plagex1.htm)

Part 2

Plagiarism can involve:

a. copying another student's work;

b. copying another person's work from a book or a journal;

c. copying another person's work from a web-site;

d. asking another person to do the work for you;

e. downloading the complete text from the Internet;

f. buying the text from the Internet;

g. or even paying for someone to do the work for you.

In all cases, if you do not do the work yourself, you are unlikely to learn from it. It is therefore not useful and a waste of your time. Do not do this. There are many ways your lecturer can check whether or not you have plagiarized. It is not worth the risk.

(http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/plagiar/plagex1.htm)

Part 3

This is when you accidentally, through carelessness or lack of skill, use another person's words without acknowledging it. This can happen for several reasons:

a. you do not know that you must not copy a person's words directly;

b. you do not have the skill for expressing another person's ideas in your own words;

c. you do not know the correct systems for indicating that you are using another person's words or ideas;

d. when you take notes from a book or journal, you copy out some sections and do not make this clear in your notes. Later when you re-read the notes, you forget that they are not your words or ideas;

e. you forget to acknowledge another person's words or ideas;

f. you do not have time to include the acknowledgments and list of references;

g. you feel your written work is not good enough;

h. you borrow your friend's notes, not realizing that some of the words are plagiarized.

(http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/plagiar/plagex1.htm)

Acknowledgements

Script 21

Different parts of an acknowledgement can be separated as follows:

- financial(recognition of extramural or internal funding);

- instrumental/technical(providing access to tools, technologies, facilities, and also furnishing technical expertise, such as statistical analysis);

- conceptual(source of inspiration, idea generation, critical insight, intellectual guidance, assistance of referees etc.);

- editorial(providing advice on manuscript preparation, submission, bibliographic assistance etc.); moral (recognizing the support of family, friends etc.).

(Cronin, B., Shaw, D. & La Barre, K. (2003). A cast of thousands: Coauthorship and subauthorship collaboration in the 20th century as manifested in the scholarly literature of Psychology and Philosophy. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(9), 855–71.)

Unit 5