По направлению: 37.03.01 Психология

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ

ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО

ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

«ДОНСКОЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

(ДГТУ)

Кафедра

«Лингвистика и иностранные языки»

Хвостовицкая Т.Т.

Методические указания и контрольные задания

По дисциплине «Иностранный язык в профессиональной сфере»

По направлению: 37.03.01 Психология

для студентов заочной формы обучения

I курс(2 семестр)

Контрольная работа № 1

Ростов-на-Дону

Общие требования к выполнению контрольной работы

Контрольная работа предназначена для студентов заочной формы обучения направления 37.03.01.

Контрольное задание предлагается в четырех вариантах. Номер варианта определяется по последней цифре номера зачетной книжки студента:

1, 2 , 3 – 1-й вариант;

4, 5 , 6 – 2-й вариант;

7 , 8 – 3-й вариант;

9 , 0 – 4-й вариант.

Контрольная работа должна быть выполнена в отдельной тетради. На обложке тетради необходимо указать следующие данные: факультет, курс, номер группы, фамилию, имя и отчество, дату, номер контрольного задания и вариант.

Первую страницу необходимо оставить чистой для замечаний и рецензии преподавателя.

Все предлагаемые к выполнению задания (включая текст заданий на английском языке) переписываются на левой стороне разворота тетради, а выполняются на правой.

Контрольная работа должна быть написана четким подчерком, для замечаний преподавателя следует оставить поля.

Контрольная работа, выполненная не полностью или не отвечающая вышеприведенным требованиям, не проверяется и не засчитывается.

Проверенная контрольная работа должна быть переработана студентом (та часть ее, где содержатся ошибки и неточности перевода или неправильное выполнение заданий) в соответствии с замечаниями и методическими указаниями преподавателя. В той же тетради следует выполнить «Работу над ошибками», представив ее на защите контрольной работы.

Четыре варианта контрольной работы имеют одинаковую структуру. Все задания должны быть выполнены в письменной форме.

Вариант 1.

Read the text and translate it in the written form.

What Is Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychologists observe and record how people and other animals relate to one another and to the environment. They look for patterns that will help them understand and predict behaviour, and they use scientific methods to test their ideas. Through such studies, psychologists have learned much that can help people fulfill their potential as human beings and increase understanding between individuals, groups, nations, and cultures.

Psychology is a broad field that explores a variety of questions about thoughts, feelings, and actions. Psychologists ask such questions as: "How do we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel? What enables us to learn, think, and remember, and why do we forget? What activities distinguish human beings from other animals? What abilities are we born with, and which must we learn? How much does the mind affect the body, and how does the body affect the mind? For example, can we change our heart rate or temperature just by thinking about doing so? What can our dreams tell us about our needs, wishes, and desires? Why do we like the people we like? What is mental illness?"

The research findings of psychologists have greatly increased our understanding of why people behave as they do. For example, psychologists have discovered much about how personality develops and how to promote healthy development. They have some knowledge of how to help people change bad habits and how to help students learn. They understand some of the conditions that can make workers more productive. A great deal remains to be discovered. Nevertheless, insights provided by psychology can help people function better as individuals, friends, family members, and workers.

2. Answer the following questions.

• What is psychology?
• What do psychologists do?
• What does psychology explore?
• What kind of questions do psychologists ask?
• Why do we need psychological research?
• How can psychology help us?
• Why do you want to become a professional psychologist?
• What is your favourite topic in psychology?
• When do you think a person should consult a psychologist?

3. Fill in the banks using the words from the text.

1. … is the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour.

2. They look for patterns that will help them understand and predict behaviour, and they use … methods to test their ideas

3. Psychology is a broad field that … a variety of questions about thoughts, feelings, and actions

4. How much does the mind affect the body, and how does the body affect the mind. What is mental …?

5. What can our … tell us about our needs, wishes, and desires?

6. Psychologists have some knowledge of how to help people change bad … and how to help students …

7. … provided by psychology can help people function better as individuals, friends, family members, and workers.

Insert proper word.

1. _____ observe and record how people and other animals relate to one another and to the environment.
a)Doctors b)Psychologists c) Psychiatrists

2. They look for ______ that will help them understand and predict behaviour, and they use scientific methods to test their ideas

a) example b) sample c) patterns

3. . Through such studies, psychologists have learned much that can help ____ fulfill their potential as human beings and increase understanding between individuals, groups, nations, and cultures.

a) peoples b) people c) nations

4. What _____ us to learn, think, and remember, and why do we forget?
a) makes b) helps c)enables

5. What ______ distinguish human beings from other animals?
a) devices b) measures c) activities

6. How much does the mind _____ the body.
a) affect b) influnce c) manipulate

7. The research findings of psychologists have greatly ________ our understanding of why people behave as they do.

a) decreased b)widened c) increased

Choose the right variants.

1. … put my money there if I didn`t think it was safe.

A.wouldn`t

B.hadn`t

C .didn`t

D. will

E.would

2.If I were you, I … to a doctor.

A.should go

B.went

C.shall go

D. am going

E.go

3.The vase is beautiful. You … another one to match if you tried.

A.wouldn`t find

B.won wouldn`t find `t find

C.wouldn`t have found

D.don`t find

E.hadn`t found

4.If you … earlier you would have caught the train.

A.leave

B.would leave

C.will leave

D.had left

E.left

5.If you … the article I recommended, you`d know how to answer such questions.

A.read

B.would read

C.had read

D.are reading

E.will read

6.If the task … easy, I could do it.

A.was

B.had been

C.is

D.were

E.would be

7.They are husband and wife now. If she … so clever and kind, he wouldn`t … her.

A.would be/have married

B.was not/marry

C.were/marry

D.hadn`t been/marry

E.were not/have married

8.I wouldn`t have a headache now if I … a sleepless night.

A.had

B.would have

C.hadn`t had

D.had had

E. were having

9.Most people who … to Kazakhstan … agree that the Republic is more beautiful in real life

A.has been/would

B.have been/would

C.have been/had

D.was/would

E.is/would

10.I can`t buy it. I haven`t got enough money.

A.I will buy it if I will have enough money.

B.If I had had enough money, I would have bought it.

C.I would buy it if I had enough money

D.I would buy it if I have enough money

E.If I had enough money, I`ll buy it.

Когда вы фотографировались?

Вариант 2.

Choose the right variants.

1.Unfortunately, I`m working so I can`t come.

A.I would have come if I weren`t working.

B.If I weren`t working I could come.

C.If I would be working I couldn`t come.

D.I could come if I hadn`t worked

E.If I wasn`t working I could have come.

2.I can`t say anything about the performance. If I … to the theatre, I could … the show myself.

A.I would have come if I weren`t working.

B.If I weren`t working I could come.

C.If I would be working I couldn`t come.

D.I could come if I hadn`t worked

E.If I wasn`t working I could have come.

3.We had very little time. If we … more time, we … to see grandmother.

A.have had/shall go

B.had had/should have gone

C.hadhad/shall go

D.have/should have gone

E.has had/have gone

4.I didn`t take pills yesterday therefore I am ill today.

A.If I had taken pills yesterday I would be well today.

B.I would be well today if I took pills yesterday.

C.If I would take pills yesterday I would be well today.

D.If I take pills today I will be well tomorrow.

E.If I would have taken pills yesterday I would have been well today.

5.We saved some money. We could buy a house and we did it.

A.If we didn`t save any money, we couldn`t buy a house.

B.We could buy a house, if we saved any money.

C.We could buy a house, if we will save any money.

D.We could have bought a house, if we had saved any money

E.If we hadn`t saved any money, we couldn`t have bought a house.

6.If I … a painter, I … my mother`s portrait.

A.am/would draw

B.were/will draw

C.was/will draw

D.were/would draw

E.shall be/shall draw

7.If he … so cruel, he … the child so badly. The poor thing was so helpless.

A.hadn`t been/would have treated

B.were/wouldn`t treat

C.was/would treat

D.wasn`t/wouldn`t treat

E.weren`t/wouldn`t have treated

8.They say, if the trade … illegal, hunters without licences … greater suffering to animals.

A.is made/will he caused

B.were made/would cause

C.was made/is caused

D.made/will cause

E.will be made/caused

9.I think if she … to the country, she … there till early September.

A.will go/would stay

B.went/would stay

C.were going/were staying

D.would go/stays

E.shall go/will stay

10.If the man … on at once he … dead.

A.were operated/won`t have been

B.has been operated/wouldn`t have been

C.had been operated/will be

D.were being operated/is

E. had been operated/wouldn`t have been

Вариант 3.

Insert proper word.

1.You're the _____ real subject.

a) only; b) one; c) hardly.

2.The experimenter arrives and tells you that the study in which you are about to participate concerns people's visual _________.

a) conclusions; b) judgments; c) oppinions.

3. She places two cards ______ you.

a) before; b) behind; c) in front of.

4. The experimenter _______ all of you, one at a time, to choose which of the three lines on the right card matches the length of the line on the left card.

a) sugests; b) asks; c) proposes to.

5. The _______ is repeated several times with different cards.

a) asignment; b) problem; c) task.

6. In 1951, the social psychologist Asch used this experiment to examine how the pressure from other people could affect one's________.

a) consciousness; b) understanding; c) perception.7. Pressure from other people can _______ you see almost anything. a) make; b) force; c) enable.

Choose the right variants.

1. … put my money there if I didn`t think it was safe.

A.wouldn`t

B.hadn`t

C.didn`t

D. will

E.would

2.If I were you, I … to a doctor.

A.should go

B.went

C.shall go

D. am going

E.go

3.The vase is beautiful. You … another one to match if you tried.

A.wouldn`t find

B.won wouldn`t find `t find

C.wouldn`t have found

D.don`t find

E.hadn`tfound

4.If you … earlier you would have caught the train.

A.leave

B.would leave

C.will leave

D.had left

E.left

5.If you … the article I recommended, you`d know how to answer such questions.

A.read

B.would read

C.had read

D.are reading

E.will read

6.If the task … easy, I could do it.

A.was

B.had been

C.is

D.were

E.would be

7.They are husband and wife now. If she … so clever and kind, he wouldn`t … her.

A.would be/have married

B.was not/marry

C.were/marry

D.hadn`t been/marry

E.were not/have married

8.I wouldn`t have a headache now if I … a sleepless night.

A.had

B.would have

C.hadn`t had

D.had had

E. were having

9.Most people who … to Kazakhstan … agree that the Republic is more beautiful in real life

A.has been/would

B.have been/would

C.have been/had

D.was/would

E.is/would

10.I can`t buy it. I haven`t got enough money.

A.I will buy it if I will have enough money.

B.If I had had enough money, I would have bought it.

C.I would buy it if I had enough money

D.I would buy it if I have enough money

E.If I had enough money, I`ll buy it.

Вариант 4.

Choose the right variants.

1.Unfortunately, I`m working so I can`t come.

A.I would have come if I weren`t working.

B.If I weren`t working I could come.

C.If I would be working I couldn`t come.

D.I could come if I hadn`t worked

E.If I wasn`t working I could have come.

2.I can`t say anything about the performance. If I … to the theatre, I could … the show myself.

A.I would have come if I weren`t working.

B.If I weren`t working I could come.

C.If I would be working I couldn`t come.

D.I could come if I hadn`t worked

E.If I wasn`t working I could have come.

3.We had very little time. If we … more time, we … to see grandmother.

A.have had/shall go

B.had had/should have gone

C.hadhad/shall go

D.have/should have gone

E.has had/have gone

4.I didn`t take pills yesterday therefore I am ill today.

A.If I had taken pills yesterday I would be well today.

B.I would be well today if I took pills yesterday.

C.If I would take pills yesterday I would be well today.

D.If I take pills today I will be well tomorrow.

E.If I would have taken pills yesterday I would have been well today.

5.We saved some money. We could buy a house and we did it.

A.If we didn`t save any money, we couldn`t buy a house.

B.We could buy a house, if we saved any money.

C.We could buy a house, if we will save any money.

D.We could have bought a house, if we had saved any money

E.If we hadn`t saved any money, we couldn`t have bought a house.

6.If I … a painter, I … my mother`s portrait.

A.am/would draw

B.were/will draw

C.was/will draw

D.were/would draw

E.shall be/shall draw

7.If he … so cruel, he … the child so badly. The poor thing was so helpless.

A.hadn`t been/would have treated

B.were/wouldn`t treat

C.was/would treat

D.wasn`t/wouldn`t treat

E.weren`t/wouldn`t have treated

8.They say, if the trade … illegal, hunters without licences… greater suffering to animals.

A.is made/will he caused

B.were made/would cause

C.was made/is caused

D.made/will cause

E.will be made/caused

9.I think if she … to the country, she … there till early September.

A.will go/would stay

B.went/would stay

C.were going/were staying

D.would go/stays

E.shall go/will stay

10.If the man … on at once he … dead.

A.were operated/won`t have been

B.has been operated/wouldn`t have been

C.had been operated/will be

D.were being operated/is

E. had been operated/wouldn`t have been

Не смешите меня.

What Makes Us Happy?

Happiness is all about everyday, normal activities, psychologists have argued, but do we intuitively understand what strategies increase happiness or not? To find out if students knew, Tkach and Lyubomirsky (2006) asked 500 undergraduates about the strategies they used to increase their happiness.

Below are the strategies students reported using, starting with the most frequently used, down to the least. Also, for each strategy Tkach and Lyubomirsky looked at the relationship between its use and students' reported levels of happiness to see if those who used a particular strategy were actually happier.

Keep in mind that this is a correlational study. That means it can only tell us that two things - like having a social life and happiness - are related, not that one definitely causes the other. That said, there are other studies which do provide evidence of causality in some categories.

1. A social life

Social affiliation (присоединение; прием, принятиевчлены) - hanging around with friends, helping others - was the most frequently reported method of increasing happiness. It also had the strongest relationship with student's actual happiness. No surprises here. Experiments manipulating people's social activity have found that when increased it leads to more happiness. It's gratifying to see that the number 1, most frequently used strategy probably does work!

2. Acting happy

Direct strategies like 'acting happy' and 'smiling' were the second most popular. While there is some experimental evidence to back this one up, Tkach and Lyubomirsky are cautious. I'd be cautious as well. 'Acting happy' might be useful as a short-term strategy but I'm not so sure about its useful in the long-term.

3. Achieving long-term goals

The students were pretty keen on setting themselves long-term goals for personal achievement, and then sticking to them. This was a relatively popular strategy for increasing happiness and there are also a good few studies to back up this finding. Well done to the students!

4. Passive leisure pursuits (занятие)

Here's the first bad boy. Passive leisure, like watching TV or playing video games, while relatively popular, showed no connection with happiness. Experimental studies back this up finding few benefits for happiness from passive leisure activities. So, once again, it's time to chuck out the the idiot box and the Xbox.

5. Active leisure pursuits

No question about this one. It's very well established that active leisure pursuits like running or cycling increase happiness. What's worrying is that these pursuits come lower down the list than passive leisure pursuits.

6. Religion

This was a relatively unpopular strategy for increasing happiness, although it is reasonably well-established that religion and being happy go together. Tkach and Lyubomirsky suggest the reason for this connection could be to do with social connectedness, having a sense of purpose in life or even reduced alcohol consumption.

7. Partying and clubbing

Perhaps surprisingly amongst university students this was relatively unpopular as a happiness-enhancing activity. It's just as well since those who partied more weren't any happier, once their extraversion was taken into account.

8. Mental control

This is the second bad boy. It centres around thinking bad thoughts: both contemplating them and trying to suppress them. This category was significantly associated with being unhappy. Indeed, previous research has found that both ruminating on negative thoughts and trying to suppress negative thoughts leads to unhappiness.

A (mostly) positive message

This last category of mental control really stands out: what on earth is it doing on a list of strategies to increase happiness? Statistically it was the strongest predictor of unhappiness. This suggests that a significant minority of people have exactly the wrong idea about what strategies increase happiness.

Passive leisure pursuits is the other category that stands out. All the other categories in the top 6 have at least some connection with happiness. This one has none and yet there it is at number 4 in the list.

The positive message is that generally the strategies that people use to increase their happiness do actually work. We're relying on self-reports here, so people could well be misrepresenting what they actually do - but at least they mostly know what they're supposed to be doing.

What Is Stress?

It is different things to different people. To a mountaineer it is the challenge of pushing physical resources to the limit by striving to achieve a demanding goal. To the homeward bound motorist it can be heavy traffic and exhaust fumes. To the student it can be exam pressure.

Take a piece of paper and write the word stress at the top. Now write down all the words and images that come to your mind as you think about this word.

Most people respond to the word stress in negative ways. They see it as a destructive force. However, not all stress is negative. The word eustress has been coined to describe positive stress. Eustress is the type of stress you are likely to experience when you inherit a large amount of money or receive an unexpected promotion or reward. Eustress is the stress of winning and achieving.

Negative stress is distress. It is the stress of losing, failing, overworking and not coping. Distress affects people in a negative often harmful manner. We all experience distress from time to time. It is a normal, unavoidable part of living.

StressorsCauseStress

Stress results from failure to adequately cope with stressors. Stressors could be loud noise, uncomfortable air-conditioning, debts, ringing telephones, broken relationships, unrealistic deadlines, discouragement, fear, pain and thousands of other things that impact upon us in the normal course of life.

It is impossible to avoid stressors. The only totally stress-free state is death! Stressors will always be there because we live in an imperfect and unpredictable world which is going to cause us to frequently get stressed. We experience stress as the body adjusts to the external demands placed upon it. Our body constantly seeks to maintain stability and stress is usually sensed as the body readjusts to too much pressure.

We need to assist our bodies to cope with being stressed because our natural biological stress-adjustors are not ideally suited to the demands of modern living. Our bodies are well suited to cope with the distressing events faced by our primitive ancestors. The stressors faced by humans conditioned to a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle are obviously different to the distressing lifestyle of today.

Our distant ancestors needed chemical responses that are inappropriate today. If you physically ran away from your workplace whenever things got on top of you then this would not enhance your standing in the Organisation. Conversely if you punch the boss on the nose when he/she gives you a tough time then the resulting dismissal and assault charges will generate considerably greater levels of distress. Consequently we need to develop special skills to deal with special stressors.

TheConsequencesofStress

One of the pioneers of stress research, Dr. Hans Selye wrote that "...stress is essentially reflected by the rate of all the wear and tear caused by life."

His research convinced him that the body has only a finite reserve of adaptation energy to apply to the stressors of life. Selye likened this reserve to a bank account upon which we can make withdrawals from time to time but into which we cannot make deposits. It is a non-renewable reserve of energy which we draw on throughout life until eventually it is consumed and death results.

Over a long period of time the stress response begins to take a toll on the body.

A weakened immune system makes us vulnerable to infection and this is why people under stress often experience regular attacks of colds and flu.

We can do ourselves a great deal of harm by stressful thinking. We can flood our body with stress hormones and this can create a vicious circle making us more and more stressful.

Mystery of Memory

Even though science continues to give us ever increasing insights into what memory is much of it remains a mystery. Researchers consider memory a process, and when you remember you are actually reconstructing the event from bits of information stored in various parts of the brain. But the mystery is, what initiates the reconstruction? Is it, as some suggest, directed from outside the physical body, from the energy body? That remains to be seen.

The Location of Memory. In the past, it was thought that all memory was in the brain. However, Gazzaniga (1988) reports that memory occurs throughout the nervous system. So every thought you have is “felt” throughout your entire body because the receptors for the chemicals in your brain are found on the surfaces of cells throughout your body. Thus when the chemicals are activated in the brain, the message is communicated to every part of your body that allows cells to communicate by remote travel using blood and cerebrospinal fluid [спинномозговаяжидкость].

Stress Erodes Memory. Excessive stress and obesity produce an over-production of a complex set of stress hormones that damage and destroy neurons in the brain’s region critical to learning and memory. One really good way to burn off excess stress hormones is through exercise. So for those experiencing particularly high stress levels exercise is not only beneficial, it is necessary.

What are the Characteristics of Memory? Sensory – we remember things that involve our five senses. So, the more senses that get activate, the easier it will be to recall.

Intensity – when something is more intensely funny, sexual, absurd, etc. it tends to stand out in our memories.

Outstanding – things that are dull and unoriginal are more difficult to remember because there is nothing to distinguish them from all the other memories.

Emotional – when something happens that has high emotional content – positive or negative – we tend to remember it more easily.

Survival – anything we perceive as important to survival we will remember more easily. It’s not just physical survival. Survival can include emotional survival, psychological survival and financial survival.

Personal importance – we naturally remember things that interest us and that have some personal importance.

Repetition – the more often we recall information, the better we get at recalling on demand.

First and last – the brain most easily recalls things from the beginning and the ending of any session or lecture.

What are the Keys to Memory? Pay attention – often times the biggest problem is that people’s minds are not focused in the moment. Instead, they are thinking about something in the past of future.

Visualization – create a visual in your mind because the brain thinks in pictures and concepts, not paragraphs.

Association – find something to connect the information to…similar to word association. Ask, “What does this remind me of?”

Imagination – get creative when visualizing or making associations.

Why do we forget? It could be that we never stored the information properly in the first place. It could be because there was not enough emotion or personal importance connected to the information to make it stick. It could be that it was so emotionally traumatic that the mind suppressed it in order to maintain normalcy.

Why do we remember negative events? Whenever emotions are activated, especially strong emotions, the information or experience is entrenched into memory. Often times we tend to dwell on it, thereby rehearsing it and entrenching it even further. It is also easier to recall negative memories when we are in a bad mood. Why? Because we remember things in the state that we learned them so whenever you are feeling angry you will more easily recall other situations in which you were angry.

The subconscious remembers everything. If we were to compare the conscious mind with the subconscious, the conscious would measure about one foot long and the subconscious would be the length of a football field. The potential is enormous. So everything we experience can be stored. However, the conscious mind would get overloaded trying to process all the incoming bits of data on a daily basis. Instead, all the information goes into the subconscious for storage and we may never deal with it, except if the mind chooses to process it at night through dreams. Or, if we go for clinical hypnosis, through which a therapist assists in accessing information or memories the conscious mind has “forgotten” or repressed.

Mysteries of Dreams

It’s a universal human experience. You rest your head against the pillow at night and slowly drift off to sleep. Soon you enter a weird and wonderful - and sometimes frightening - world. It’s a world in which you might find yourself walking around school in your pajamas or chasing the school bus after you missed it. You could be flying under your own power or talking with a long-deceased relative. You’ve entered the world of dreams.

People have always dreamed, and dreamers have always wondered what their mysterious nighttime visions meant. Some philosophers in ancient times believed that dreams were important messages from the gods or visions of things to come. As the centuries rolled by, many other philosophers, as well as average people, developed their own theories about the purpose of dreams and what dreams mean. And finally, dreams became a subject of scientific inquiry.

Freud and Jung Interpret Dreams. In his 1900 book, Freud described how he asked his patients to tell him everything they could remember from their dreams. Freud believed that dreams were “the royal road to the unconscious.” He concluded, on the basis of his talks with the patients, that dreams are caused by disturbing [беспокоящий] wishes, such as sexual desires or aggressive impulses that a person represses in waking life. These unacceptable thoughts, according to Freud, are often disguised as symbolic elements in dreams. For example, fire may symbolize feelings of hostility, while water may stand for sexuality. The symbolism in dreams, Freud maintained [отстаивать], needs to be decoded, or interpreted, in order to be understood. Freud believed that symbolism is necessary in dreams, because straightforward thoughts about unacceptable desires and feelings would arouse anxiety and awaken the dreamer. Thus, Freud proposed, dreams are the guardians of sleep.

Freud’s questioning of his patients led him to believe that dreams are usually brief and that dreaming itself is rare during sleep. Furthermore, he concluded, a dream usually incorporates some minor, unresolved event from earlier in the day—a piece of “unfinished business” of some kind. But at a deeper level, Freud theorized, dreaming is a unique state of consciousness that is prompted by such urges [побуждение] as hunger, thirst, and sexuality that arise during the night.

Doubts about Freud’s explanations for dreaming led the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung to develop his own theory between 1912 and 1920. Jung rejected Freud’s idea that dreams are related to wish fulfillment. He believed that dreams can express spiritual and moral concerns as often as they express sexual or emotional preoccupations [предрассудки]. Jung’s main conclusion was that dreams express aspects of the personality that are not fully developed in waking life. For example, people who neglect their spiritual needs may experience strong religious feelings in their dreams.

In order to understand what their dreams mean, Jung suggested, dreamers need to become familiar with the kinds of symbols used in myths, fairy tales, and religious rituals. For instance, as in tales involving the “big, bad wolf,” a dangerous animal may symbolize some person or event that poses a threat to the dreamer. And, as in Christian theology, wine may represent blood or salvation. Jung claimed that people in modern Western civilization often ignore such symbolic language, and so they need help in understanding what their dreams are trying to say to them.

Although most psychiatrists disagreed with some of the ideas of Freud or Jung, many accepted the central conclusion of their theories—that dreams have symbolic meanings.

Sleep Laboratories. Between 1953 and 1957, physiologist Nathaniel Kleitman of the University of Chicago and two students discovered that sleep is characterized by four different levels of brain activity. The scientists found that during the first hour or so of sleep, the activity of the brain steadily decreases. Then it begins to increase until it reaches a high level similar to that of the waking state. The researchers named this mentally active stage of sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep because of the eye movements that are one of its most noticeable characteristics. Four or five distinct periods of REM sleep occur at intervals of about 90 minutes during a typical eight-hour sleep period. Each REM period is longer than the previous one, ranging in length from about 5 to 10 minutes to half-an-hour or more. Occurring between the REM periods are intervals of lower brain activity called non-REM (NREM) sleep. Each period of NREM sleep occurs at a higher stage of brain activity than the previous one.

Do Dreams Have any Meaning? Taking the idea that dreams have meaning, but rejecting the explanations of Freud and Jung, many scientists have developed their own theories of dreams. For example, several researchers have proposed that dreams have a problem-solving function, suggesting possible solutions to emotional problems. Other researchers, however, point out that few dreams seem to provide even a hint of a solution to such problems.

The inability of investigators to develop a widely accepted theory to explain the meaning of dreams led sleep-lab researchers J. Alan Hobson and Robert W. McCarley of Harvard Medical School in Boston to suggest in 1977 that dreams have no function or purpose. The theory proposes that the brain uses stored memories and established thought patterns to try to bring some order to the random signals, thus producing dreams. Many dream researchers, however, doubt this theory, because it incorrectly implies that dreaming is strictly a product of REM sleep.

Some sleep researchers claim that dreaming may be the accidental by-product of two evolutionary developments—complex brains and sleep. According to this view, the evolution of complex brains in humans gave rise to dreaming because, during sleep, there is no external world to help organize the vast amount of brain activity. Thus, dreams are the brain’s purposeless response to this mental activity. Despite this theory, most dream researchers maintain that there must be at least some meaning in dreams, because so many elements in dreams relate to waking thoughts and concerns.

In order to answer the question, “What do my dreams mean?” we may have to wait for further advances in the study of dream content and breakthroughs in the study of brain function. In the meantime, when you go to bed at the end of a long day and close your eyes, you might simply look forward to the fascinating show that your brain will be putting on for you.

5.Difference Between Animals And Humans

If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you. This is the principal difference between a dog and a man.

The term Animal as described in the dictionary means a living organism other than humans which feeds and usually has sense organs and a nervous system and can move. Animals include a vast majority of species. Humans belong to Homo Sapiens and are bipedal species. This means that the humans walk around using their two rear limbs.

Animals would normally only include multi cells and complex organisms. Organisms like the bacteria will not be included in the animal kingdom. In most animals the dietary habits are very limited which means that they would either be vegetarians or non-vegetarians. The Humans on the other hand are omnivorous which means that they are able to consume both vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods.

Animals cannot talk or communicate with each other. In some species that the skills have been found these are very basic and undeveloped. Humans on the other hand are the only known species with highly developed communication skills.

Animals merely feed to survive and reproduce. They have not developed any skills that go beyond their survival needs. The Humans are known for their curiosity to understand and to try and influence and change their environment. It is this curiosity in the Humans that has lead to the development of advanced tools, technology and science. The human behavior is much different from the animals as we have set purposes in life that go beyond the survival needs of day today.

The Humans are highly social beings and live in large colonies. The Humans are the only known species that has the ability to domesticate animals and engage in agriculture. With the invention of advanced techniques and technology the Humans have been able to colonise all the continents. Through this colonization the humans have infringed on the land where these animals once survived and created a problem of existence for them.

Summary

1. Animals may cover a lot of species whereas Humans belong to Homo Sapiens.

2. Most animals walk on all four legs or crawl (ползать) whereas Humans are bipeds (двуногие).

3. Animals tend to be either herbivorous (травоядный) or carnivorous (плотоядный) and stick to their diets whereas the Humans are omnivorous (всеядный).

4. Animals are unable to communicate like Humans do.

5. Animals are endangered (находящийсяподугрозойисчезновения (овиде)) due to the Human influence on their environment.

6. Whereas Animals simply survive in their environment, Humans have developed technology & science to change their environment.

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ

ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО

ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

«ДОНСКОЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

(ДГТУ)

Кафедра

«Лингвистика и иностранные языки»

Хвостовицкая Т.Т.

Методические указания и контрольные задания