Измерение других компонентов систем установок
Во всех главах этой книги мы встречались со случаями, когда измеряется фактическое поведение, которое должно следовать из установок данного человека. В некоторых исследованиях процессов убеждения, например, экспериментатор может предоставить испытуемым возможность действовать в соответствии с новой установкой, появившейся у них в результате прослушивания убеждающего сообщения: подписать обращение, стать донором и сдать кровь, купить определенный продукт или прореагировать каким-либо иным способом, рекомендованным в убеждающем сообщении. В исследованиях получения согласия и когнитивного диссонанса рассматриваются такие поступки, как покупка лотерейных билетов, ложь в адрес другого испытуемого или откровенный отказ подчиниться групповому решению. Если наблюдение фактического поведения невозможно, то исследователи могут измерять поведенческие намерения, которые обычно коррелируют с будущим поведением, но эту корреляцию ни в коем случае нельзя считать идеальной (см. главы 1 и 5). Исследователь может попросить испытуемых оценить по числовой шкале вероятность того, что они совершат тот или иной поступок (например, приобретут продукт или бросят курить).
В последние годы социальные психологи проявляют все больший интерес к измерению когниций установочной системы. Одним из популярных методов, часто используемых в исследованиях процессов убеждения, является метод перечисления
мыслей (Greenwald, 1968; Petty and Cacioppo, 1981). После того как испытуемые прослушали или прочитали убеждающее сообщение, их просят записать все свои мысли, имеющие к нему отношение. Им дают инструкцию разделить свои мысли на «отдельные идеи» и выдают бланки для ответов, где имеются графы для последовательной записи «идей», из которых состоят мысли. На выполнение задания отводится определенное время (часто это три минуты). Затем не менее двух судей оценивают и классифицируют эти мысли (судьям неизвестно, в какой экспериментальной группе находился каждый испытуемый). В зависимости от основной цели эксперимента мысли можно классифицировать по характеру их содержания: выражено ли в них согласие или несогласие с точкой зрения, высказанной в убеждающем сообщении; отражают ли они идеи, высказанные в сообщении, или собственные идеи испытуемого; касаются ли они самого сообщения или коммуникатора и так далее. Проанализировав мысли определенных типов, исследователь часто может узнать многое об убеждениях и знаниях, лежащих в основе установки, и о том, как предъявление убеждающего сообщения и другие манипуляции повлияли на эти ментальные переменные.
Существует также метод контент-анализа, который предназначен для анализа письменных сочинений, групповых дискуссий и других вербальных реакций, причем анализ производится по таким параметрам, как сложность мышления, оценочная последовательность мышления и знание предмета.
Для оценки концептуальных переменных, имеющих отношение к установкам, используются также измерения временных и физиологических показателей. Например, для изучения доступности и силы установок измеряется время, которое необходимо людям для того, чтобы сообщить о своем согласии или несогласии с краткими установочными высказываниями.
Измерение физиологических показателей, таких как частота сердцебиения и гальванические кожные реакции (связанные с потоотделением), уже давно используется при исследовании эмоций и аффективных компонентов установок. Проводя традиционные процедуры измерения физиологических показателей, можно достоверно зарегистрировать изменения интенсивности чувств и эмоций, но такие данные не позволяют судить о том, какие установки отражают эти эмоции — позитивные или негативные. Тем не менее не так давно исследователи начали изучать весьма специфические физиологические реакции на социальные стимулы и предполагают, что эти реакции могут отражать фактическую ориентацию установок человека по отношению к социальному стимулу, однако эта гипотеза требует дальнейшей проверки. Например, в исследованиях по одной тщательно разработанной программе получены данные наблюдений, которые говорят о том, что когда люди слушают и обдумывают убеждающее сообщение, у них происходят небольшие, но поддающиеся измерению изменения активности лицевых мускулов, находящихся вокруг рта (Cacioppo and Petty, 1987). Известно, что эти изменения имеют различный характер для случаев, когда реципиент возражает против доводов, приведенных в сообщении, и когда это сообщение вызывает когнитивные реакции согласия.
В целом можно сказать, что в работах, посвященных исследованию изменения установок и социального влияния, применяется множество самых разнообразных измерительных методик, причем некоторые подходы разработаны лучше, чем другие.
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