Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

PASSIVE VOICE

(BE+ V₃)

	PAST	PRESENT	FUTURE
SIMPLE	was / were + V3	am / is /are + V3	will be + V3
The letter was written. Письмо было написано. The letter wasn’t written. Was the letter written?	Letters are written every day. Письма пишут каждый день. Letters are not written. Are letters written every day?	The letter will be written. Письмо будет написано. The letter won’t be written. Will the letter be written?
CONTIN.	was / were being + V3	am / is /are + V3	________
The letter was being written. Письмо писали. The letter wasn’t being written. Was the letter being written?	The letter is being written now. Письмо сейчас пишут. The letter isn’t being written. Is the letter being written?
PERFECT	had + V3	have / has + V3	will have + V3
The letter had been written by 2. Письмо было написано к двум. The letter hadn’t been written. Had the letter been written?	The letter has just been written. Письмо только что написали. The letter hasn’t been written. Has the letter been written?	The letter will have been written by 2. Письмо будет написано к двум. The letter won’t have been written. Will the letter have been written?

MODALS

MODAL	MEANING	EXAMPLE
CAN (COULD*)	1. физическая и умственная способность 2. возможность 3. разрешение 4. в отрицаниях – запрет (‘нельзя’) 5. просьба	I can swim quite well. Everyone can make a mistake. Can I go home? You can’t cross the street here! Can I have some juice?
MAY / MIGHT	1. разрешение 2. возможность (тж might)	You may go now. I may/might become a doctor.
MUST	1. долженствование, исходящие от говорящего 2. в отрицаниях – запрет (строже, чем с can)	You must do it right now. Cars mustn’t be parked here.
SHOULD / OUGHT TO	1. совет (‘следует’, ‘стоит’) 2. моральное обязательство 3. с Perfect Inf. (have done) – упрек	You shouldn’t eat so many sweets. Children ought to help their parents. You should have called me.
NEED	необходимость (как модальный – только в отрицательных предложениях)	You needn’t do it right now.
SHALL	1. предложение 2. намерения	Shall we begin? He shall come to the party.
WILL / WOULD	1. желание, намерения 2. просьбы, предложения 3. в отрицаниях – настойчивое сопротивление (‘никак не’)	I will / would lend you some money. Will / would you help me? The door won’t / wouldn’t open.

*When talking about some successful action in the past (‘он смог’) you should use was / were able to instead of could which is used to express abilities in the past. At the same time was / were able to is not normally used in negatives – couldn’t is used in this case:

He could swim well when he was young.

Он хорошо плавал в молодости.

He was able to swim across the river in 5 minutes.

Он смог переплыть реку за пять минут.

He couldn’t swim across the river.

Он не смог переплыть реку.

Semi-Modals

HAVE TO	1. долженствование, вызванное обстоятельст- вами (‘приходится’) 2. в отрицаниях – отсутствие необходимости (‘не надо’)	I work hard as I have to keep my family. You don’t have to get up so early.
BE TO	1. договоренность (если не состоялась – даль- ше Perfect Inf.) 2. строгий приказ 3. в отрицаниях – строгий запрет 4. что-то неизбежное (’суждено’) 5. в вопросах об указаниях	We are to meet at 5. (We were to have met at 5 but we didn’t) You are to stay here until I come back. You are not to do that. He was to become a doctor. What are we to do?

Modals of Deduction

MODAL	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLE	TIME
MUST	должно быть вероятно очевидно скорее всего	He must have written a book.	Past
He must have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He must be writing a book now. He must like writing books.	Present
He is likely to write a book. He will probably write a book.	Future
должно быть вероятно очевидно скорее всего	+ не	He must have failed to write a book.	Past
He isn’t likely to have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He isn’t likely to be writing a book.	Present
He isn’t likely to write a book. He won’t probably write a book.	Future
вряд ли
MIGHT	возможно может быть может	(+не)	He might (not) have written a book.	Past
He might (not) have been writing his books for a year.	Perfect meaning
He might (not) be writing a book now. He might (not) like writing book.	Present
He might (not) write a book.	Future
CAN	неужели	Can he have written a book?	Past
Can he have been writing the book for a year?	Perfect meaning
Can he be writing a book now? Can he like writing books?	Present
Will he really write a book?	Future
неужели	+ не	Can he have failed to write a book?	Past
Can it be that he isn’t writing a book? Isn’t he writing a book.	Present
Can it be that he won’t write a book? Won’t he write a book?	Future
не может быть	He can’t have written a book.	Past
He can’t have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He can’t be writing a book now. He can’t like writing books.	Present
He isn’t likely to write a book.	Future
не может быть	+ не	He can’t have failed to write a book.	Past
It can’t be that he isn’t writing a book.	Present
It can’t be that he won’t write a book.	Future

Notes:

1. To translate ‘вероятно … не’, ‘неужели не’ and ‘не может быть, что … не’ referring to the past you can use not only the verb to fail but other lexical ways as well:

Вероятно, она не понравилась твоим родителям = Your parents must have disliked her.

2. When you use state verbs in such sentences referring to present you are to use the Indefinite Infinitive after modals as state verbs can’t express the process:

Не может быть, что она любит тебя = She can’t love you.

TROUBLESOME VERBS

INFINITIVE	PAST SIMPLE	PAST PARTICIPLE	TRANSLATION
arise	arose	arisen	возникать
arouse	aroused	aroused	возбуждать
rise	rose	risen	подниматься
raise	raised	raised	поднимать
fall	fell	fallen	падать
feel	felt	felt	чувствовать
fill	filled	filled	наполнять
find	found	found	находить
found	founded	founded	основывать
fly	flew	flown	летать
flow	flowed	flowed	течь
hang	hanged	hanged	вешать (= казнить)
hang	hung	hung	вешать
lay	laid	laid	класть
lie	lied	lied	лгать
lie	lay	lain	лежать
loose	loosed	loosed	отпускать
lose	lost	lost	терять
ring	ringed	ringed	окружать, обводить
ring	rang	rung	звонить
saw	sawed	sawn	пилить
see	saw	seen	видеть
sew	sewed	sewed	шить
sow	sowed	sowed	сеять
seat	seated	seated	усаживать
set	set	set	устанавливать
sit	sat	sat	сидеть
spill	spilt	spilt	проливать
split	split	split	раскалывать
strike	struck	struck	ударять
stroke	stroked	stroked	гладить
wind	wound	wound	заводить
wound	wounded	wounded	ранить

1. Choose the most suitable answer a, b, c, d, or e:

1. –________ is your name ? – My name is Andrew.

a) What b) How c) Who d) When e) Where

1. – What’s my job ? – _________________

a) You is student. b) You’re student. c) You’re an engineer. d) You are engineer. e)Yes.

1. – Where are you now ? – ________________

a) Fine, thanks! b) A student. c) I’m in a classroom. d) I’m Sao Paulo. e)I’m Andrew.

1. – How are you ? – _______________________

a) 23 years. b) In a school. c) A fine. d) I’m fine. e) Not now.

1. – Are you from Japan ? – ______________

a) Yes, I’m. b) No, I am not. c) Thank you! d) No I are not. e) No, I’re not.

1. – Is John single ? – _____________

a) Yes, it is. b) No, it isn’t. c) No, John is away. d) No, John is with a friend. e)Yes, he is.

1. I have got one brother and three _____________.

a) parents b) girls c) sisters d) women e) woman

1. You are twins, so you are _______________.

a) men b) boys c) cousins d) brothers e) adults

1. I have cats and you have dogs. These are my cats and those are ___________ dogs.

a) a b) your c) you’re d) yours e) yore

1. 10 + 4 is _____________________

a) four b) fourteen c)forty d) fifteen e) forteen

A Job Interview

- Hello. How 1______ you?

- I’m fine, 2 _______ you.

- What’s your 3_______?

- I 4_______ Peter Brown.

- Well, Mr. Brown. When 5 ______ you born?

- I 6______ born in 1980.

- When did you 7 _______ school?

- Six years 8 _____.

- What 9 _____ you do after 10 _____?

- I started working 11 _____ a taxi-driver.

- 12______ you like your job?

- Not much really. It 13_____ very tiring.

- Have you 14 _______ a family?

- Yes, I 15______. I 16 _______ married.

- Have you got 17 ______ children?

- Yes, I’ve got 18 _____ son.

- Thank you, Mr, Brown. We 19 ______ call you 20 ____ two days and tell about our decision.

- Thank you for your time. Good bye.

Put in the right article.

1. There is _____ bridge over ______river.
2. Would you like _____ cup of _____ tea?
3. Yesterday I told to _____ man who had just returned from _____ Bahamas.
4. They bought _____ table. _____ table is made of oak.
5. We have _____ nice apartment in _____ center of St. Petersburg.
6. _____ Earth goes round _____ Sun.
7. I go to ______ dentist four times _______ year.
8. ______ weather was so fine that we decided to have ______ swim.
9. Every day I have ____ breakfast in ____ morning.
10. He lives in _____ most beautiful building in our city on _____ tenth floor.

PASSIVE VOICE

(BE+ V₃)

	PAST	PRESENT	FUTURE
SIMPLE	was / were + V3	am / is /are + V3	will be + V3
The letter was written. Письмо было написано. The letter wasn’t written. Was the letter written?	Letters are written every day. Письма пишут каждый день. Letters are not written. Are letters written every day?	The letter will be written. Письмо будет написано. The letter won’t be written. Will the letter be written?
CONTIN.	was / were being + V3	am / is /are + V3	________
The letter was being written. Письмо писали. The letter wasn’t being written. Was the letter being written?	The letter is being written now. Письмо сейчас пишут. The letter isn’t being written. Is the letter being written?
PERFECT	had + V3	have / has + V3	will have + V3
The letter had been written by 2. Письмо было написано к двум. The letter hadn’t been written. Had the letter been written?	The letter has just been written. Письмо только что написали. The letter hasn’t been written. Has the letter been written?	The letter will have been written by 2. Письмо будет написано к двум. The letter won’t have been written. Will the letter have been written?

MODALS

MODAL	MEANING	EXAMPLE
CAN (COULD*)	1. физическая и умственная способность 2. возможность 3. разрешение 4. в отрицаниях – запрет (‘нельзя’) 5. просьба	I can swim quite well. Everyone can make a mistake. Can I go home? You can’t cross the street here! Can I have some juice?
MAY / MIGHT	1. разрешение 2. возможность (тж might)	You may go now. I may/might become a doctor.
MUST	1. долженствование, исходящие от говорящего 2. в отрицаниях – запрет (строже, чем с can)	You must do it right now. Cars mustn’t be parked here.
SHOULD / OUGHT TO	1. совет (‘следует’, ‘стоит’) 2. моральное обязательство 3. с Perfect Inf. (have done) – упрек	You shouldn’t eat so many sweets. Children ought to help their parents. You should have called me.
NEED	необходимость (как модальный – только в отрицательных предложениях)	You needn’t do it right now.
SHALL	1. предложение 2. намерения	Shall we begin? He shall come to the party.
WILL / WOULD	1. желание, намерения 2. просьбы, предложения 3. в отрицаниях – настойчивое сопротивление (‘никак не’)	I will / would lend you some money. Will / would you help me? The door won’t / wouldn’t open.

*When talking about some successful action in the past (‘он смог’) you should use was / were able to instead of could which is used to express abilities in the past. At the same time was / were able to is not normally used in negatives – couldn’t is used in this case:

He could swim well when he was young.

Он хорошо плавал в молодости.

He was able to swim across the river in 5 minutes.

Он смог переплыть реку за пять минут.

He couldn’t swim across the river.

Он не смог переплыть реку.

Semi-Modals

HAVE TO	1. долженствование, вызванное обстоятельст- вами (‘приходится’) 2. в отрицаниях – отсутствие необходимости (‘не надо’)	I work hard as I have to keep my family. You don’t have to get up so early.
BE TO	1. договоренность (если не состоялась – даль- ше Perfect Inf.) 2. строгий приказ 3. в отрицаниях – строгий запрет 4. что-то неизбежное (’суждено’) 5. в вопросах об указаниях	We are to meet at 5. (We were to have met at 5 but we didn’t) You are to stay here until I come back. You are not to do that. He was to become a doctor. What are we to do?

Modals of Deduction

MODAL	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLE	TIME
MUST	должно быть вероятно очевидно скорее всего	He must have written a book.	Past
He must have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He must be writing a book now. He must like writing books.	Present
He is likely to write a book. He will probably write a book.	Future
должно быть вероятно очевидно скорее всего	+ не	He must have failed to write a book.	Past
He isn’t likely to have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He isn’t likely to be writing a book.	Present
He isn’t likely to write a book. He won’t probably write a book.	Future
вряд ли
MIGHT	возможно может быть может	(+не)	He might (not) have written a book.	Past
He might (not) have been writing his books for a year.	Perfect meaning
He might (not) be writing a book now. He might (not) like writing book.	Present
He might (not) write a book.	Future
CAN	неужели	Can he have written a book?	Past
Can he have been writing the book for a year?	Perfect meaning
Can he be writing a book now? Can he like writing books?	Present
Will he really write a book?	Future
неужели	+ не	Can he have failed to write a book?	Past
Can it be that he isn’t writing a book? Isn’t he writing a book.	Present
Can it be that he won’t write a book? Won’t he write a book?	Future
не может быть	He can’t have written a book.	Past
He can’t have been writing his book for a year.	Perfect meaning
He can’t be writing a book now. He can’t like writing books.	Present
He isn’t likely to write a book.	Future
не может быть	+ не	He can’t have failed to write a book.	Past
It can’t be that he isn’t writing a book.	Present
It can’t be that he won’t write a book.	Future

Notes:

1. To translate ‘вероятно … не’, ‘неужели не’ and ‘не может быть, что … не’ referring to the past you can use not only the verb to fail but other lexical ways as well:

Вероятно, она не понравилась твоим родителям = Your parents must have disliked her.

2. When you use state verbs in such sentences referring to present you are to use the Indefinite Infinitive after modals as state verbs can’t express the process:

Не может быть, что она любит тебя = She can’t love you.

Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

Type of the adj. / adverb (тип прилагат. / наречия)	neutral degree (нулевая ст. ср.)	comparative degree (сравнительная ст. ср.)	superlative degree (превосходная ст. ср.)
1.Односложн. прилагат. и наречия; двусложные прилагат. на -y, -ow, -er.	big fast lovely narrow clever	+ -er	bigger faster lovelier narrower cleverer	+ -est	the biggest the fastest the loveliest the narrowest the cleverest
2. Двух- и более сложные прилагат. и наречия на –ly.	modern beautiful prettily	more +	more modern more beautiful more prettily	the most +	the most modern the most beautiful the most prettily
3. Исключения	good, well bad, badly many, much little (=маленький) little (мало) old	better worse more smaller less 1. elder a) только о родственниках; b) только с сущ. после него; c) никогда в сравнит. обор. 2. older	the best the worst the most the smallest the least 1. the eldest 2. the oldest
	far (далекий, далеко)	1.farther (только о расcтоян.) 2. further a) о расстоянии; b) = дополнительный: further news (дальнейшие новости)	1. the farthest 2. the furthest

Comparative formulas

1. больше, чем… : сравнит. cтепень прил. /нареч. + than:

My sister is taller than my mother. Моя сестра выше мамы.

This film is more interesting than the one we saw last week. Этот фильм интереснее того, что мы видели на прошлой неделе.

2. гораздо больше, чем…: much / a lot + сравн. ст. прил./нареч. + than

Cheetahs run much faster than other animals. Гепарды бегают гораздо быстрее остальных животных.

He is much more intelligent than the other students. Он гораздо умнее остальных студентов.

3. менее … чем…: less + нулевая ст. ср. + than

This town is less polluted than capital cities. Этот город загрязнен менее, чем столичные города.

4. так(ой) … как …: as + нулевая ст. ср. + as

He is as clever as his father. Он так же умен, как и его отец.

They are not as successful as their competitors. Они не так преуспевают, как их конкуренты.

5. чем …тем: the + сравнит. ст. … the + сравнит. ст.

The faster you work the sooner we’ll finish. Чем быстрее ты будешь работать, тем скорее мы закончим.

PRONOUNS

Personal, Possessive, Object, Reflexive Pronouns

(личные, притяжательные, объектные, возвратные местоимения)

	Лицо	Personal (личные)	Possessive (притяжательные)	Object (объектные)	Reflexive (возвратные: сам, собой)
Ед. число	+ сущ.	без сущ.
	I(я)	My (мой)	mine	me (мне, меня, мной)	myself
	you (ты, вы)	your(твой, Ваш)	yours	you (тебе, тебя, тобой)	yourself
	he (он) she (она) it (он, она для неодуш. сущ.)	his (его) her (ее) its (его, ее)	his hers its	him (ему, его, им, о нем) her (ей, ее, о ней) it	himself herself itself
Мн. число		we (мы)	our (наш)	ours	us (нам, нас, нами)	ourselves
	you (вы)	your (ваш)	yours	you (вам, вас, вами)	yourselves
	they (они)	their (их)	theirs	them (им, их, ими)	themselves

SOME and ANY

	SOME	ANY
positive	a) немного, несколько There’s some water in the bottle. There’re some chairs in the room. b) какой-то, некий Some Mr Jones wants to see you.	a) любой, всякий Any child can do it. b) after hardly – вряд ли кто-то, что-то … Hardly anyone knows it. c) as a rule, after if If you know anything, tell me.
negative	некоторый, какой-то, кто-то etc. (частичное отрицание) I didn’t go to some lectures yesterday Вчера я не ходил на некоторые лекции	никто, ничто, никакой etc. (полное отрицание) I didn’t go to any lectures yesterday Я вчера вообще не ходил ни на какие лекции
question	a) в специальных вопросах Where can I get some cigarettes? b) в просьбах и предложениях Would you like some tea?	в общих вопросах Does anyone know the truth?