Methods of establishing your products in a foreign market
International treaties
5 international treaties have been negotiated and drafted in the UN Committee On Peaceful Uses of Outer Space:
- The 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty").
- The 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement").
- The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention").
- The 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention").
- The 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon Treaty").
Space debris are the objects in orbit around Earth created by humans, and that no longer serve any useful purpose: spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments, paint flakes, dust, and slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites, deliberate insertion of small needles, and other small particles. Clouds of very small particles may cause erosive damage, like sandblasting.
Space debris have become a growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can be highly damaging to functional satellites and can also produce even more space debris in the process. Astronauts on space-walks are also vulnerable.
2. Способы отбора персонала. Агентства по подбору персонала. Резюме. Сопроводительное письмо (структура, содержание).
When a company needs to recruit or employ new people, it may decide to advertise the job or position in the appointments section of a newspaper.
Interested people can apply for the job by sending in a letter of application (covering letter) and a curriculum vitae (CV).
Curriculum vitae – key information about individual’s educational background, previous work experience, skills and personal qualities.
CV:
- personal/contact information
- academic background
- foreign language abilities
- clear to read, present an attractive image
- not too long
- chronological or functional order
- interesting features highlighted
Covering letter may be attached to create a good impression (so that the recruiter will want to read CV):
* briefly: where you heard about the job and why you fit it
* confirm your wish to apply
* information you learned about the job
* formal tone of the text
* no mistakes
* concise and precise
* why you are interested in the position
* possible contribution to the job (highlight relevant skills)
* indicate willingness to attend interview
Recruitment:
- company may also ask candidates to complete application form
- HR department selects most suitable applications and prepares short list of candidates
- invites applicants to attend an interview
Alternative: services of a recruitment agency (US search firm) – provides company with a list of suitable candidates;
may act as a consultant or organize testing and simulations to evaluate the candidates' skills.
A number of companies are not satisfied with traditional job interviews. When the candidate could gain the post only with a good prepared answers and representative look. Now employers want to evaluate candidates on intangible qualities:
- creativeness or entrepreneurial spirit
- leading or coaching skills
- flexibility and capability of learning
- functioning under the pressure
- fitting to corporate culture
They are requiring applicants to submit to a series of:
- paper-and-pencil tests (general intelligence)
- role-playing exercises
- simulated decision-making exercises
- brainteasers
Others put candidates through a series of interviews by psychologist or trained interviewers.
Possible questions:
“Who is the best manager you ever worked for and why?”
“What is your best friend like?” – can understand your behavior pattern and managerial style
The mistake can cost for the company a huge sum of money (lead to corporate downsizing)
Aims of comprehensive testing – to measure skills in:
- communication
- analysis and organization
- attention to detail
- personality traits and motivations
This can predict applicant’s performance.
Билет 5
1. Терроризм и ядерное оружие.
Terrorism - deliberate violence or the threat of violence directed at innocent non-combatants and governments to cause fear systematically to attract media attention for causes which may be political or ideological or religious and which are viewed as coercive (насильств.).
- Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.
- The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local populace, the government, and the world to their cause.
- The terrorists plan their attack to obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose.
- The effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s reaction to the act.
Types of terrorism:
- State Terrorism (when a State acts as a terroristic group; ex. Nazi Germany)
- Bioterrorism (intentional release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians)
- Cyberterrorism (use information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause)
- Ecoterrorism (new term; violence in the interests of environmentalism; sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries in spheres of fur, logging, animal research laboratories, for example)
- Nuclear terrorism (refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, or building nuclear weapons or otherwise finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.)
Nuclear terrorism is the most dangerous form; it could lead to unpredictable consequences. A number of institutions were created to protect the world from it:
- IAEA (Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibits its use for military purposes. Carries out control over the nuclear objects all around the world with help of special commissions)
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (limits the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons; opened for signature on July 1, 1968. There are currently 189 countries party to the treaty, five of which have nuclear weapons: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China)
Nuclear weapons:
- Uranium based (enrichment level 80-90% (for nuclear plants 2-4.5%), 45-50 kg minimum)
- Plutonium based (ex. Nagasaki bomb: 8kg Pu-239)
2. Акционерный капитал. Виды ценных бумаг. Способы привлечения капитала. Паевые инвестиционные фонды.
Company shares can be bought when a firm starts trading or issues more shares, or when other investors are selling their shares.
If a company makes a profit, some of it is shared among the share and debenture holders.
Some types of shares are a gamble, some are less risky.
Debentures
- not shares but direct loans to a company
- fixed interest (not depending on company’s profit)
- are always paid first (before shareholders)
- may be bought and sold on the Stock Exchange
Preference shares
- fixed rate of interest (if the company has made enough profit to paу it)
- paid after debenture holders, before ordinary shareholders
- return guaranteed as long as there’s a profit
- voting rights limited (little control over the company)
Cumulative preference shares
- if profit is not enough in any year to pay the full interest it is made up to cumulative preference shareholders in later years when money is available
Ordinary shares (eqиities)
- paid after preference shareholders
- dividend directly depend on profits
- largest risk
- considerable voting rights (more control of the business)
Blue chip shares
- in well-known companies with reliabIe and efficient management
- carry less risk than other ordinary shares
Deferred shares (founders shares)
- paid last of all what may be left over from the profits
- strongest voting rights (often held by the people who started the company) and give more control over the firm and its directors
Rights issue
- extra shares offered to existing shareholders at a price below that which they would fetch on the market
- shareholders may sell their 'right' to buy these shares
- are good investment (because of low cost)
Unit Trusts – organizations that enable people with limited savings and little financial knowlege to invest in а wide range of stocks and shares without paying high Srock Exchаnge charges. The Trust managers offer Units for sale directly to the public: with the money received they buy shares in many companies and/or Government stocks.
Билет 6
1. Право внешних сношений. Привилегии и иммунитеты дипломатического представительства.
International customary law grants a host of privileges and immunities to diplomatic mission. They are laid down in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, of 1961.
Privileges and immunities of the diplomatic missions:
- Freedom of use of national symbols and flags on the premises, cars
- premises of DM are inviolable (agents of receiving State are not entitled to enter without consent of head of mission; must be protected against intrusion or damage, disturbance of peace, impairment of dignity)
- The premises of the mission, their furnishings and other property and the means of transport of the mission shall be immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution
- archives are inviolable (R state permit and protect free communication, official correspondence, diplomatic bags-not opened or detained, diplomatic couriers-personal inviolability)
The R state shall accord full facilities for the performance of the functions of the mission.
By way of Quid pro quo members of d.m. owe duties towards the receiving State:
- to respect the law
- premises must not be used in any manner incompatible with the functions of the mission
2. Европейское сообщество – цели и задачи. Основные этапы развития.
EU – unique political and economic community with supranational and intergovernmental dimensions.
27 member states.
1957 – the Treaty of Rome: European Economic Community (EEC) formed by 6 European countries.
1993 – the Maastricht Treaty: base of the current legal framework.
Single market:
- freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital
- common policies: trade, agricultural, fisheries, regional development
- 1999 common currency introduced (adopted by 13 member states)
Schengen Agreement:
- passport control and customs checks between many member states abolished.
Population: over 492 million
Nominal GDP: €11.6 ($15.7) trillion (2007)
Institutions:
- the European Commission
- the European Parliament
- the Council of the European Union
- the European Council
- the European Court of Justice
- the European Central Bank
Citizens elect the Parliament every 5 years.
EU represents its members in WTO and observes the G8 summits.
Europe’s mission in the 21st century is to:
o peace, prosperity and stability for its peoples
o overcome the divisions on the continent
o ensure safety for its people
o balanced economic and social development
o meet challenges of globalisation and preserve diversity of peoples of Europe
o uphold the values (sustainable development, sound environment, respect for human rights, social market economy)
Milestones:
1957 – European Economic Community founded (BeNeLux, Fr, It, FRG)
1973 – Denmark, Ireland and the UK joined
1981 – Greece
1986 – Portugal and Spain
1987 – The Single European Act: single economic area from 1993, called the European Community
1991 – The Maastricht Treaty signed, reinforcing economic and monetary union
1993 – In November 1st the organisation became the EU
1995 – Increased to 15 countries: Austria , Finland, Sweden
1999 – The single European currency the EURO was launched
2004, May – 10 countries joined the EU
2007 – Bulgaria, Romania
Билет 7
1. Государство как субъект международного права. Границы, права и обязанности государств. Признание суверенитета государства.
Every state enjoys complete and exclusive sovereignty over its territory and the air space above it.
To be recognized as a sovereign state it should be consistent with several conditions: to have population, territory, government, that can rule the country, currency etc.
State boundaries
- land boundaries (no rule, determined by express or tacit agreement with its neighbors)
- territorial waters (‘cannon shot’ rule, 3 miles, The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention: 12 miles TW, 200 miles EEZ)
- airspace (exclusive jurisdiction)= full, exclusive sovereignty
Rights of States
- Every State has an inalienable right to choose its political, economic, social and cultural systems, without interference in any form by another State.
Duties:
- to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms
- to fulfil in good faith the obligations
- to refrain from:
o threat or use of force against other State (or in any other manner inconsistent with purposes of UN)
o acts of reprisal (involving the use of force)
o organizing, instigating, participating in civil strife in another State
o measures of coercion(принуждение) of another State (economic, political or other)
o subversive, terrorist or armed activities towards violent overthrow of the regime (organize, assist, foment, finance, incite or tolerate)
2. Формы собственности. Частное предпринимательство, партнерство, общество с ограниченной ответственностью (ООО), открытое акционерное общество (ОАО). Процедура регистрации.
Business ownership
1) Sole trader – earliest form of business, owned and managed by one person (hired staff – not proprietors).
Registration in trade register, license, books reflecting the results of business activities.
Advantages:
- easy to set up
- confidential finances
- sole possession of profits
- freedom in decisions
- personal service,can adapt to social needs
Disadvantages:
- unlimited liability(responsible for all debts himself, can be made to sell his posessions)
- limited capital for new projects
- tied to business
2) Partnership (unlimited) – joint property and capital of its members (up to 20 people), profit distributed proportionately to the share of participation, equal and collective responsibility;
(limited or sleeping) –if at least one working partner with unlimited liability,others can invest capital in a firm-they don’t work,but share in profits and losses(but up to the amount they have put in)
Registration: name of 1-2 full members, must not add ‘Ltd.’
Advantages:
- more capital available
- new ideas
- easy to form-no complex legal problems
- sharing of work
- losses shared
- specialization in professional partnerships
Disadvantages:
- limited capital for a large scale business
- disagreements possible
- unlimited liability
- no continuity (part-p breaks up on death, retirement, bankruptcy)
3) Private limited company – number of people (more than 20) invest money by buying shares (cannot be sold through Stock Exchange, only to people of whom the director approve, board of directors appointed, dividends paid on each share if company makes profit.Shares can be partly paid.Shareholder is liable only for invested by him money.
Registration:
Memorandum of Association (Company and its dealing with outside world/sets out name Ltd., type, total share capital, kind of shares)
+
Articles of Assocation (rules how the company run internally: powers, duties of directors, staff, salary, issue and transfer of shares)
sent to Registar of Companies
=
Certificate of Incorporation(permission to start trading)
Advantages:
- more capital than partner-p
- limited liability
- continuity
- legal position as company
Disadvantages:
- expensive to set up – heavy legal and accountancy fees+ large government stamp duty
- shares cannot be sold to public-may limit capital
- expensive to audit accounts carefully
4) Public limited company – more than 2 shareholders (no maximum),minimum capital – 50 000 f., shares can be advertised and sold to the public, operates on large scale (must reveal activity to the public).
Registration:
Memorandum of Association+ Articles of Assocation +Prospectus (set out for public company’s aims, background)
=> Registar of Companies => Certificate of Incorporation(But cannot start trading yet)
- Company makes public offering – advertising for sale(public issue) or selling shares privately to pension funds,insurans comp(private placing)(for enough capital) =>Can apply for Trading Certificate,get it,start the bussiness
Advantages:
- almost limitless capital (shares)
- large scale of operation (huge projects undertaken)
- limited liability (to the amount of investment)
- continuity
- legal identity of the company
Disadvantages:
- expensive and complex to set up
- critics of management by shareholders may hinder the progress of the company
- inflexibility, inefficiency of management, overstaffing
- much information must be revealed(companies Act 1967-large corporation can work against government wishes)
- liable to takeover bids and political pressure
Билет 8
1. Право международных организаций: понятие, виды, привилегии и иммунитеты, роль в современном обществе.
Internarional organizations –
- Org.established by treaty or other instrument (resolution, joint unilateral act) governed by international law
- possessing own international legal personality (autonomous organs acting on majority basis)
- composed of States (predominantly), other IO’s (entities)
Role in international affairs:
- development of international law specifically
- Within diverse fields of operation (endeavour): political cooperation, protection of the environment, defense, humanitarian and development assistance, promotion of trade, etc.
IO perform functions:
- Provide forum for deliberating upon matters of common interests, develop rules on these matters
- Act as vehicles for taking action on international problems
- resolution of international disputes
- promoting, monitoring, supervising State compliance with agreed rules and policies
Types:
- intergovernmental (predominantly States): UN, WTO
- non-governmental (private entities, though operate in more than 1 country): Amnesty International, Greenpeace
- membership: universal(UN)/closed(geographic, economic criteria OPEC)
- functions: broad areas/particular fields
2. Государственные ценные бумаги, акции частных компаний. Фондовая биржа.
Investment opportunities
Reasons to buy shares and stocks:
(1) steady income from dividends
(2) long-term capital growth
Government stock or bonds (gilt-edge securities or gilts) – loans to the Government, can be bought at Post Office or through bank or Stock Exchange.
- fixed rate of interest
- repaid after a number of years(dated or undated)
- absoltitely safe (backed by the Goverment)
- no protection against inflation
Local authority bonds – city, town and country councils can issue bonds (borrow money) when they need more income (sold on Stock Exchange or directly to public through Local authority’s finance department)
- secure
- fixed rate of interest
- repayable after a number of years
- usually for а shorter period then Gilts
- slightly higher interest rate
Cоmpаnу shares сan bе bought:
(а) when а firm starts trading оr issues more shares оr
(b) when other investors аге selling their shares
Билет 9
1. Организация Объединенных Наций: создание, устав, цели и принципы.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - a military alliance, that was founded in April 1949.
- Its headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium.
- Members: 28: roughly bordering the north Atlantic Ocean - Canada, U.S., Turkey and most members of the European Union.
What Is the History of NATO?:
- Thoughts of such alliance began after the WWII.
- The forerunner of the NATO agreement was the Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and the United Kingdom. It was designed to defend member nations of Western Europe against the large number of troops in pro-communist countries. Those were later known as the Warsaw Pact countries and included the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany.
- Participation of the United States was thought necessary in order to counter the military power of the USSR, and therefore talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately.
- talks resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949.
- It included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. It was ratified in 1949 August 24, the instruments of ratification were deposited with the government of the USA.
- During the Cold War, the primary mission of NATO shifted to prevent nuclear war.
- After the USSR dissolved in the late 1980's, NATO's relationship with Russia shifted again. In 1997, the NATO-Russia Founding Act was signed to build bilateral cooperation. In 2002, the NATO-Russia Council was formed to discuss ongoing security issues. At issue is U.S. missile shields in Europe. Russia argues they are designed to defend against potential Russian attempts to regain its former Warsaw Pact countries. The U.S. counters they are to intercept potential missiles from.
2. Интернациональные коммерческие термины (цель, классификация EXW, CIF, FOB).
Incoterms – set of international rules (drawn by the International Chamber of Commerce) for interpretation of terms in foreign trade, describing duties and responsibilities of seller and buyer.
Aim: to avoid disagreements (resulting from differences in trading practices).
Categories:
- E: goods available to the buyer at the seller's premises (EXW)
- F: seller delivers to carrier appointed by buyer (FCA, FAS, FOB)
- C: seller pays for carriage, has no liability after shipment and dispatch (CFR, CIF, CPT, CIP)
- D: seller bears all costs and risks in shipping goods (DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP)
EXWorks:
- maximum obligation for buyer (all costs and risks)
- goods ready for collection at seller’s factory
- all forms of transport can be used
FOB (Free on Board):
- seller: transportation to the port of shipment, loading costs
- buyer: freight, insurance, unloading, transportation to his warehouse
- passing of risk: ship's rail at the port of shipment
CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight):
- seller: transportation to the port of destination, loading costs, freight insurance
- buyer: unloading, transportsation to warehouse
- passing of risk: ship's rail at the port of shipment
Билет 10
1. Право внешних сношений. Консульские функции. Консульский иммунитет
Customary rules on the legal status of consular agents were codified in the 1963Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR): entered into force in 1967.
Consular agents perform activities designed to protect the commercial and other interests of the appointing State and in particular render assistance to nationals of that State.
CR establishment:
- by mutual consent
- establishment of DR implies establishment of CR
- severance of DR does NOT imply severance of CR
Functions:
- protect interests of its state and nationals (both individuals and bodies corporate)
- further the development of relations (cultural, commercial, economic, scientific)
- help and assist nationals
- issuing passports and travel documents to nationals of the sending State, and visas or appropriate documents to persons wishing to travel to the sending State
- acting as notary and civil registrar and in capacities of a similar kind, and performing certain functions of an administrative nature, provided that there is nothing contrary thereto in the laws and regulations of the receiving State
- representation of nationals before the tribunals and other authorities
Career consul – official appointed by the sending State with consent of the receiving State
Honorary consul:
- not member of a diplomatic mission,
- may be citizen of the host State,
- appointed by the sending State with consent of the host State,
- usually a representative of business.
Consulate – office of consul (usually subordinate to the state’s main representation in the host State, may be part of embassy)
Privileges and immunities:
- not enjoy personal immunities
- only immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction for acts done in the official exercise of their consular functions (functional immunities)
- inviolability of premises, archives, and documents
- exemption from taxation
- freedom of movement and communication
2. Категоризация мировых культур: Linear-Active, Multi-Active, Reactive Cultures. Проблемы столкновения культур, принадлежащих к разным категориям.
The several hundred national and regional cultures of the world can be roughly classified into three groups:
- task-oriented, highly organized planners (linear-active);
- people-oriented, loquacious interrelators (multi-active);
- and introverted, respect-oriented listeners (reactive).
Linear-active (Swedes, Swiss, Dutch, Americans and Germans):
- introvert, patient, quiet, plan ahead methodically, job-oriented and unemotional, value punctuality
- do one thing at a time, concentrate hard on that thing and do it within a scheduled time period (consider it more efficient)
- dominated by time-tables, get and verify information from books, statistics
- separate social/ professional
- stick to facts, value fixed agendas
Multi-active (Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, Latin Americans):
- extrovert, impatient, talkative
- not very interested in schedules or punctuality
- do not like to leave conversations unfinished (even if it goes beyond their schedule)
- let one timetable influence another and change plans
- are likely to juggle facts and prefer first-hand oral info
- Emotional and people-oriented
Reactive (Japanese, Koreans, Chinese, Vietnamese, Finns):
- silent, patient, good listeners, prefer to look at general principles, react, punctual
- reacts to partner's timetable
- sees whole picture, makes slight changes, statements considers to be promises
- summarizes well, plans slowly, delegates to reliable people, avoids confrontation, doesn't interrupt, connects social and professional
Enduring misunderstandings arise principally when there is a clash of category rather than nationality.
The ability to interact successfully with foreign partners in the spheres of commercial activity, diplomatic intercourse and scientific interchange is seen as increasingly essential and desirable => cross-cultural training is very useful.
Билет 11
1. Право внешних сношений. Дипломатический корпус. Понятия: gunboat diplomacy, shuttle diplomacy.
Diplomatic corps denotes the entire body of all diplomatic representatives, ambassadors and ministers, nuncios and internuncios, charges d’affaires
in broader sense: – includes not only heads of missions but the diplomatic personnel headed by them (ministers-counsellors, counselors, first, second, third secretaries, attachés),
- and persons who enjoy diplomatic status
(trade representatives, military attachés, experts),
- family members.
DC:
- has no status of a political organization
- however, allows effective solutions of certain questions of concern to all diplomatic missions
- makes it easier to brief them on the country’s political course
- facilitates the contacts with official circles and among missions themselves
DC is headed by a Doyen:
- head of a diplomatic mission with longer term of stay in the given country
- high-ranking diplomatic officer
- respected post(but he is not authorised to give orders to other members)
- unofficial consultative meetings with heads of missions of ceremonial nature(in the course of a luncheon, farewell parties) or on matters of protocol
- brief on customs,protocol practice, give recommendations to his colleagues
- speaks on behalf of DC at festive events
Heads of mission are divided into 3 classes - namely:
1) ambassadors, nuncios, and others of equivalent rank (accredited to Heads of State)
2) envoys, ministers, internuncios (accredited to Heads of State)
3) charges d’affaires (accredited to Ministers for Foreign Affairs)
If the post of head of the mission is vacant, or if the head of the mission is unable to perform his functions a chargé d'affaires ad interim shall act provisionally as head of the mission.
Charge d’affaires – the lowest ranking official of the dip service
Chargé d'affaires ad interim – counselor or secretary of an embassy or legation who automatically assumes charge of a dip mission in the temporary absence of an ambassador or minister.
2. Структура компании (история создания, основные направления деятельности, этапы развития, производственные мощности, иерархия, основы успешной деятельности на примере компаний Shell, Colgate-Palmolive, Proctor & Gamble).
Most companies are made up of three groups of people: the shareholders (who provide the capital), the management and the workforce.
Board of directors -> managing director -> senior management -> middle management.
Board of Directors:
- is at the top of the company hierarchy
- headed by the Chairperson or President (elected by the Board and responsible for key policy decisions and the strategy)
Managing Director or Chief Executive Officer (CEO):
- appointed by the BoD
- has overall responsibility for the running of the business
Senior managers:
- head the various department or functions within the company.
Departments:
Personnel (Human Resources):
- manages employee affairs
- finds and screens new employees
- keeps employee records and run training, recreation and education programs,
- manages employee benefits (or fringe benefits) such as medical coverage, life insurance, profit sharing plans and pension plans.
Marketing:
- is bringing a product to market and building its market share
- has become almost scientific, thanks to computers and modern market research
- marketing people devise strategies such as market segmentation and positioning
- includes advertising.
R&D (Research and Development):
- in R&D scientists and engineers engage in what are often called technical programs
- assisted by technicians, specialists who are less educated or experienced
- general mission – to enhance existing products, to involve new technologies etc
Information Technology:
- is the computer and telecommunications heart of a corporation
- gets and transmits timely information about business inside and outside the company
Manufacturing:
- Raw materials and parts receiving
- plant engineering, production, production scheduling,
- quality control or quality assurance and shipping.
- The place where manufacturing takes place is usually called the production line.
PR (Public Relations):
- communicating with the press on the behalf of the company
- creating and supporting an attractive image of the company of the marketing
Билет 12
1. Роль ООН в современном мире. Проблема дефицита власти в современном мире
Authority deficit, role of UN
- notable decline in sources of authority in recent years (in the world from US to UN)
- cold war provided a source of stability and order in the world
- sole surviving superpower US – had choice: (1) create multipolar world, or (2) assert own strength and power
- its decision (2) was much affected by Sept. 11, 2001
- this created unhappiness and disorder
- UN – was main institution that has source of authority in recent decades
- has done little job to restore international order after cold war
- UN found itself in an asymmetrical world after Cold War
- US feeling strong and acting in its own interests disregarding the UN decisions and UN Charter
- comedown of NATO.NATO might find new lease of life - to keep alive a standing alliance which can react quickly to foreign emergencies.
- increasing disorder
- dangers of international system without authority – aggression, of non-state actors using military force etc.
- governments have great deal of authority (confiscating a large amount of individual incomes through taxation)
- we should welcome the ebbing(убывание) of authority internally within the countries and regret the ebbing of athority in international system
2. Технологии маркетинга. Маркетинговое исследование компании Shell.
Билет 13
1. Международный Суд ООН (ICJ).
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) – principal judicial organ of the UN
- established in 1945 by the Charter of the UN
- began work in 1946
Headquarters and permanent seat – Peace Palace, the Hague (Netherlands)
Role:
- settlement of legal disputes submitted by States
- advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs and specialized agencies
Registry, headed by a Registrar-administration, elected by the Court for a 7-year term.
Official languages: English, French
Parties to the Court's statute: all UN members. Non-UN members may also become parties.
Composition:
- 15 judges elected for 9 years by GA and SC
- elections every 3 years
- continuity (1/3 of judges retiring/re-elected each election)
- Judges are elected as individuals, not as representatives of their countries, and are required to make a solemn declaration in open court of impartiality in the exercise of their functions.persons of high moral character
- qualified for highest judicial office in their states
- sufficient competence in int. law
- not able to hold any other post, nor act as counsel
- dismissed by unanimous vote of other members of the Court
- owner of the Peace Palace - The President of the Court (elected triennially by his colleagues
Ad hoc judges
- any party to a contentious(спорный) case can nominate a judge of their choice to participate fully in the case and the deliberations(размышления), along with the permanent bench
- 17 judges are possible to sit on one case
Chambers (Судейские коллегии)
Court can form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases (chambers for special categories of cases and ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes).
The hearing is open to the public.
Sources of law:
- int. conventions
- int. custom
- ‘general principles of law recognized by civilized nations’
- academic writing and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law
(but not formally bound by previous decisions)
- decision ex aequo et bono – "in justice and fairness" if granted by parties
(equitable(беспристрасный) decision based on what is fair under the circumstances)
The decision of the Court is adopted by majority vote, the President of the Court having a casting vote in the event of a tie. , the judgment is ‘final and without appeal
Procedure
- 9 judges constitute a quorum
- questions decided by majority of judges present
- hearings may be held in Hague or elsewhere
court may render judgment in certain disputes between states
2. Понятие розничной/оптовой торговли. Проблемы британских предпринимателей на американском рынке в плане культурных особенностей, размера инвестиций, учета конкуренции и расположения торговых точек. Факторы успеха.
Retailing and wholesale
Wholesale – sale of commodities(товары) in quantity for resale.
Retailing – selling products to general public.
Outlets – shops or stores for retailing.
Large retail chains are organized nationally and sell standardized selection of products
(their outlets in shopping centres (US malls): large variety of stores in the same location).
Hypermarkets (over 30,000 sq. m.) or superstores (under 30,000) – of town locations with parking facilities.
Department stores – large shops which sell a wide variety of products, usually from a city centre location (organized in departments, each with own manager).
Problems of British retailers in the US market:
- lack of cultural awareness (assume that US and UK consumers have same tastes-what can be perceived as traditional, high quality merchandise in the UK may appear in US to be old fasioned)
- difference in whole structure of the industry and the way how the outlets organised (us market is dominated by the malls, UK failed to grasp the size factor, not able to adapt to huge US market)
- underestimating the competition (US retailers – aggressive players, consumers – bargain hunters, industry changes quickly, requires flexibility and being dynamic)
- choosing wrong places for stores (expensive town centre locations)
Richer Sounds' Keys to Success in Rretail Business:
- end-of-line or surplus equipment
- suppliers – manufacturers hoping to off-load the end-of-line equipment (often at a discount price)
- outlets – 28 small stores in UK (walk-in warehouses), “bargain bins”, special offers, equipment stacked from floor to ceiling, banners hanging
- regular advertising in national newspapers (they buy late space at a discount)
- customer service training: not to be pushy, to take responsibility, follow the correct administrative procedures, attend training seminars at Richer’s country house
- free phone number on customer receipts to dial in case of problem
- seasonal gifts and gifts-away offered
- staff motivation: customer service competition – win a car and petrol for month, gold aeroplane badges handed out to “high fliers”
Safeway Superior Service Program
- eye contact with the customer
- smile, greet, offer samples of products, accompany to locate items, thank shoppers by name
- “mystery shoppers” to control performance
- staff motivation: $500 worth of company stock, additional bonuses
- side effects: customers’ debates about false and genuine frendliness, misinterpretation of friendliness, growing morale problems among the staff
Билет 14
1. Система органов ООН: главные органы, вспомогательные органы, специализированные учреждения. Генеральная Ассамблея ООН, Совет Безопасности.
2 types of organs within the UN
- principal (powers, functions, composition determined by the Charter):
GA, SC, ECOSOC, Trusteeship Council, ICJ, Secretariat
- subsidiary (created by principal organs that determine powers, functions and composition):
set up by GA – International Law Commission, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the UN Administrative Tribunal (UNAT).
set up by SC – peace-keeping missions, Sanctions Committees, the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, UNCC (the United Nations Compensation Commission)
The principal organ will confer some of its powers on a subsidiary organ that it creates. However, a principal organ may be entitled to confer on the subsidiary organ powers which it does not itself possess where the power to establish such a subsidiary organ is necessary.
Specialized agencies:
- international organizations in their own right (unlike subsidiary organs)
- established by separate treaties; bound with the UN by agreements
- the UN may though coordinate their activities (mainly, through ECOSOC)
The General Assembly:
- plenary organ (not legislative) body
- the only principal organ composed of all member States
- meets annually in regular session (between September and December)
- competence to discuss and make recommendations
- one member one vote(important decisions must be adopted by two thirds of members present and voting, other – simple majority)
- binding decisions only on internal administrative matters
- may not intervene in domestic affairs
- agenda items allocated to one of six main committees, where decision-taking occurs
- (Disarmament and International Security, Economic and Financial, Social, Humanitarian and Cultural, Special Political and Decolonization, Administrative and Budgetary Legal)
- procedural committees
(not composed of all UN members):
o General Committee (organizing the work of session, deciding on the agenda)
o Credentials Committee (examines the credentials of representatives of member States)
- standing committees (composed of experts rather than representatives of member States, assist the Fifth Committee with financial matters):
o Advisory Committee (administrative and budgetary questions)
o Committee on Contributions
2. Понятие франшизы. Обязанности сторон. Преимущества и недостатки данного бизнеса для обеих сторон.
Franchising – business system in which a company (franchisor) sells an individual (franchisee) the right to operate a business using the franchisors established system or format.
Franchisee:
pays:
- franchise fee (or front end fee) – to buy the license
- royalty (or management services fee) for continuing advice and assistance (calculated as a percentage of annual turnover)
- advertising fee to contribute to franchisors annual advertising and marketing costs
- finds necessary capital to open the business
- buys products from particular supplier appointed by franchisor
- complies with/conforms to standards (quality of the products)
- recruits and manages personal
- provides annual reports on sales
Franchisor:
- provides operation manual (information for franchisee to run his business)
- provides equipment
- promotes the business through national advertising
- chooses supplier
- controls the way franchisee manages his business
- may appoint master franchisee (to supervise the business in particular area)
Benefits
Franchisee:
- safe bet, reduced risk( you will not fail, you are investing in a business that’s already operating in other places)
- quick access( iа advice needed)
Franchisor:
- expands business without making investments
- no need to recruit personnel
Problems for franchisee:
- not free in activity
- huge financial responsibility, much capital required, pay back at least 7-10 years. If you need more money the f-r won’t offer you any cash. He will literally just take the franchise from you when you lost much money.
- staff may let you down, you are the one who has to step in, maybe work in the kitchen…
- flexibility and willingness to work hard are necessary
Secrets of successful franchise:
- you need to have much dedication to the job.
- preparation - the most important part - in this business you need to be looking at the future
- staffing is the main problem. You have to find the right people who will enjoy their not a high-paying job.
- You need to be sure that you are constantly matching 2 issues:
- A)your bills will remain pretty constant B) you have a long- term vision (no immediate payback)
- be patient and enjoy the daily success of the business
Билет 15
1. МАГАТЭ: создание, структура. МАГАТЭ и нераспространение ядерного оружия.
Internarional organizations –Org.established by treaty or other instrument (resolution, joint unilateral act) governed by international lawpossessing own international legal personality (autonomous organs acting on majority basis)composed of States (predominantly), other IO’s (entities)
History:
first created in XIX century were created as a means conducting international relations and fostering cooperation
evolved from ad hoc multilateral conferences (Congress of Vienna 1815) into institutions with organs on a permanent basis early IO dealt with technical, non-political matters (Commissions regulating rivers, Telegraphic and Postal Unions) League of Nations(forerunner of the UN) – first IO to deal with political relations, which aspired to universal membership
Role in international affairs: development of international law specifically
Within diverse fields of operation (endeavour): political cooperation, protection of the environment, defense, humanitarian and development assistance, promotion of trade, etc.
IO perform functions:
Provide forum for deliberating upon matters of common interests, develop rules on these matters Act as vehicles for taking action on international problems resolution of international disputes promoting, monitoring, supervising State compliance with agreed rules and policies
Types:
intergovernmental (predominantly States): UN, WTO
non-governmental (private entities, though operate in more than 1 country): Amnesty International, Greenpeace
membership: universal(UN)/closed(geographic, economic criteria OPEC)
functions: broad areas/particular fields
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
world's center of cooperation in the nuclear field set up in 1957 within the UN family as the world's "Atoms for Peace" organization its mission - promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies guided by interests and needs of Member States, strategic plans and vision embodied in Statute(закон) areas of work: Safety and Security; Science and Technology; Safeguards and Verification(контроль) not under direct control of any UN body reports to GA and SC main bodies: Board of Governors, General Conference, Secretariat
Structure
The Board of Governors policy making body makes recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget responsible for publishing IAEA standards appoints the Director General subject to General Conference approval The General Conference (GC) lesser policy making body forum for debate on current issues and policies
2. Основные этапы коммерческой операции. Документы, используемые в международных торговых операциях.
Business documentation
Тrading documents are headed with name оf organization and differ in style.
1)Buyer -> Seller - Letter of enquiry
- sent to several suppliers before goods are ordered
- requires information before deciding who to buy from
(prices, sреcificаtiоns, catalogues/price lists, delivery dates, discounts, details оf carriage)
2) Seller -> Buyer sends Quotation, price list and catalogue The purchasing officer will receive several quotations + information from potential suppliers.
3)Buyer -> seller, sends an order (+dеtails such as prices and delivery)
Upon receipt of the official order the seller will check the details on it. Acknowledgement of order is sent to indicate that the details on the order can be met.
4)Seller -> buyer:
- advice note (note to buyer with details of goods that they are being sent)
- delivery note (document confirming that goods have been delivered)
- invoice(document with details of goods, price, payment date)
if invoce is amended:
- credit note (sent to customer who is owed moneу, because goods have been returned)
- debit note (sent to customer who owes moneу to seller, because invoice was inсоrrеct)
- statementof account sent regularly to buyer listing аll invoices, debit/credit notes, amounts of payments made and total to be paid
From buyer to seller:
- cheque
The Bill of Lading
- a transfer document, most important one in shipping
- The exporter writes the importer's name on the bill of lading -it is a document of title - gives ownership of the goods to the person named on it.
- the words "to order" written on it /under the heading "consignee"/ - means that it is a negotiable document, can be traded. In this case it will be endorsed on the back and if the endorsement is blank there will be no restrictions on ownership. Bills are also marked "clean" to indicate that the goods were taken in good condition or "dirty/claused" if the packing or the goods were damaged. This protects the shipping company from claims.
The Bill of Exchange
- Drawn by the exporter and is given to his local bank together with other shipping documents
- This is sent to the importer who pays for the consignment and receives the shipping documents
- The importer may now collect the goods when they arrive
- Document against Payment: importers pays at sight
Document against Acceptance: payment delayed. The importer writes “accepted” on the BoE and sends it back to the exporter’s bank and pays later.
Билет 16
1. Безопасность (Safety and Security) использования ядерного топлива.
Safety and security of the use of nuclear fuel
Safety culture – attitude among staff towards safety
Safeguards – international accounting and verification system designed to ensure that fissile material is only used for peaceful purposes.
ALARA – reduce doses as low as reasonably possible
ALARP – reduce accidents to as low as reasonably practicable
Security – freedom from illegal acts such as terrorism
Safety – freedom from radiological and non-radiological accidents.
Weakness of the NPT:
- the state can decide that it’s not in his interest to inform you and it may not do so then you’ll never know what’s happening.
- you have to develop your own ability to observe non-intrusively its territory.(satellites with sensors).
-
The IAEA is involved by helping nations to develop nuclear energy for peaceful use. It also has responsibility under the NPT for ensuring that nuclear material is not diverted into weapons. To that end it carries out regular inspections of civil nuclear facilities. The NPT is complemented by international controls on the export of technology which could be used for developing nuclear weapons.
-
The Additional Protocol singed in 1997 which allows inspectors of AIEA more power to detect undeclared activities. Inspectors can visit any suspect location in a country without giving more than two hours notice. The Additional protocol is a major step forward in preventing the proliferation.
+The UN Environment Programme also deals with the safeguards of nuclear materials.
Chernobyl.
The international scale of accidents/incidents.
Safety nuclear material is when transported:
Canister – small container for vitrified HLW
Cask – packaging for carrying or storing highly radioactive material.
Packaging – hardware into which radioactive contents is inserted
Package – packaging plus its contents
Overpack – an extra covering around the packaging
2. Способы продвижения продукта на зарубежный рынок. Платежные документы (аккредитив, переводной вексель, банковский перевод)
Methods of establishing your products in a foreign market
- working with local experts (sole agents эксклюзивный дилер or multi-distributors многопрофильная оптовая фирма), who have a specialist knowledge of the market and sell on behalf of the company
- this leads to opening a local branch местный филиал
- selling, or giving permission to use, patents and licences for products
- start by manufacturing in the export market (set up local subsidiary дочернее предприятие or joint venture совместное предприятие with local partner)
Measures of trade regulation
The Protectionist measures raise the price of impoгted goods so that domestically produced goods will gаin а price advantage, so they protect domestically produced goods) – this is done by the government to protect infant industries.
Protectionist measures control international trade. The most common of them are tarrifs and quotas. Tariff(duties) – tax on imported goods.
Quota –is the maximum quantity of а product that mау bе admitted to а country during а certain period of time.
Business documentation
Тrading documents are headed with name оf organization and differ in style.
1)Buyer -> Seller - Letter of enquiry
- sent to several suppliers before goods are ordered
- requires information before deciding who to buy from
(prices, sреcificаtiоns, catalogues/price lists, delivery dates, discounts, details оf carriage)
2) Seller -> Buyer sends Quotation, price list and catalogue The purchasing officer will receive several quotations + information from potential suppliers.
3)Buyer -> seller, sends an order (+dеtails such as prices and delivery)
Upon receipt of the official order the seller will check the details on it. Acknowledgement of order is sent to indicate that the details on the order can be met.
4)Seller -> buyer:
- advice note (note to buyer with details of goods that they are being sent)
- delivery note (document confirming that goods have been delivered)
- invoice(document with details of goods, price, payment date)
if invoce is amended:
- credit note (sent to customer who is owed moneу, because goods have been returned)
- debit note (sent to customer who owes moneу to seller, because invoice was inсоrrеct)
- statementof account sent regularly to buyer listing аll invoices, debit/credit notes, amounts of payments made and total to be paid
From buyer to seller:
- cheque
The Bill of Lading
- a transfer document, most important one in shipping
- The exporter writes the importer's name on the bill of lading -it is a document of title - gives ownership of the goods to the person named on it.
- the words "to order" written on it /under the heading "consignee"/ - means that it is a negotiable document, can be traded. In this case it will be endorsed on the back and if the endorsement is blank there will be no restrictions on ownership. Bills are also marked "clean" to indicate that the goods were taken in good condition or "dirty/claused" if the packing or the goods were damaged. This protects the shipping company from claims.
The Bill of Exchange
- Drawn by the exporter and is given to his local bank together with other shipping documents
- This is sent to the importer who pays for the consignment and receives the shipping documents
- The importer may now collect the goods when they arrive
- Document against Payment: importers pays at sight
- Document against Acceptance: payment delayed. The importer writes “accepted” on the BoE and sends it back to the exporter’s bank and pays later.
Билет 17
1. Международные организации: Организация о всеобъемлющем запрещении ядерных испытаний: создание, структура, роль в современном мире
2.Средства продвижения продукта. Основные компоненты маркетинга. (Marketing concept/Thinking marketing).
Билет 18
1. Проблема нераспространения ядерного оружия. Основные договоры в области разоружения. ДНЯО. ДВЗЯИ.
2. Экспорт/импорт. Секреты успешного экспорта. Методы продвижения продукта на зарубежный рынок.
Import – buying from abroad, export – selling abroad.
Invisible import/export – goods, visible export/import – services.
Balance of trade – the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports of output in an economy over a certain period. Trade surplus = E > I, trade deficit = E < I.
Secrets of successful exporting:
- understanding the needs of the customer
o understanding the difference in requirements of customers
o understand the market and adapt the products
- using the services of an export specialist
o selecting own agents(specialists in export) to represent the firm
o carrying out own research
- proper communication and documents preparation
o build up network of contacts (key to getting started –rely on the fax, phone, e-mail)
o then you can maintain communication with partners in more sophisticated manner
o be familiar with all the paperwork in int.transactions especially with letters of credit prepared carefully, checked – reduce the risk
- getting the right information
o info about law and international finance
o study the market, who is your target audience (plenty of ways to find that out - chamber of commerce, trade shows, find people who have the knowledge that u need)