VI. Найдите и переведите предложения в Present Perfect Tense, в Passive Voice . 2 страница

6. This was a very fruitful period of Maxwell's life. He studied the problems of electromagnetism, molecular physics, optics, mechanics and other.

7. Maxwell wrote his first scientific work when he was fifteen. Since that time he wrote a great number of works which weretheresults of his experiments and calculations.

8. His most outstanding investigations, however, are in the field of the kinetic theory of gases and electricity. Maxwell is the founder of the electromagnetic field (side by side with Faraday) and the electromagnetic theory of light. In 1873 he published his famous work on electricity and magnetism. During these years he also wrote his classification "Matter and Motion", a small book on a great subject, and many articles on various subjects ("Atoms", "Attraction" "faraday" and others).

9. Maxwell's works on the kinetic theory of gases, the theory of heat, dynamics and the mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism are monuments to his great genius.

Notes:

1. for the first time - впервые, в первый раз

2. world-known - всемирно известный

3. side by side with - наряду с

I. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. When and where was J.C.Maxwell born?

2. Where did he study?

3. What did he do after graduating from the University?

4. What was a very fruitful period of Maxwell's life?

5. What are his most important works?

II. Определите, правильны или неправильны следующие выражения

1. After school Maxwell entered the University of Cambridge.

2. He became professor of natural philosophy at Trinity College.

3. Maxwell organised a laboratory for the study of electricity and magnetism.

4. His most famous work was published in the early 1870s.

III. Задайте вопросы к имеющимся ответам

1. He studied the problems of electromagnetism, molecular phisics and others.

2. Maxwell wrote his first work when he was fifteen.

3. Maxwell is the founder of the electromagnetic theory of light.

4. During these years he wrote many articles on various subjects.

IV. Закончите предложения:

1. He attended the University of Cambridge and graduated from it...

2. When at the University Maxwell took great...."

3. He wrote a great number of works which were the results... .

V. Докажите, что 1871 был очень плодотворным периодом для Максвелла.

HENRY CAVENDISH AND HIS DISCOVERY

Henry Cavendish was born in 1731 and died in 1810. He was an English nobleman who did scientific experiments as a hobby. In 1781 he made the important discovery that water is not an element but a compound of the gases we now call hydrogen and oxygen. He described his experiments to the Royal Society in 1785.

His method was new. He showed that if electric sparks are passed through a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen the two gases combine explosively and form water. This was a dangerous experiment. Cavendish did his experiment safely; he wisely used a strong brass container for the gases. He also passed electric sparks through air and found that gases which readily dissolve in water form acids. We explain this reaction today as follows: oxygen and, nitrogen combine and oxides of nitrogen.

Cavendish also noticed that air contained a small proportion of a gas which did not combine with any other gas even if we pass electric sparks through it for a long time. Now we think that this gas was probably argon, one of the inert gases. It was rediscovered many years later.

Notes:

1) if electric sparks are passed - если пропускать электрические искры (разряды)

2) explosively - со взрывом

I. Определите часть речи следующих слов и переведите их на русский язык.

Science, scientific, scientist; England, English, Englishman; cover, discover, rediscover, discovery, discoverer; important, importance;

Element, elementary; react, reaction, reactor, reactivity; electric, electrical, electricity; mix, mixture; danger, dangerous; fame, famous; contain, container; man, nobleman (noble-благородный), gentleman, workman.

II. Найдите русские эквиваленты следующим словам:

experiment, element, gas, hydrogen, oxygen, method, container, hobby, reaction, proportion, argon, inert.

III. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1) Chemistry is my hobby.

2) Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

3) Tell about your future profession, please.

4) Pass me the salt, please.

5) He passed by without saying a word.

6) At the evening technical school students combine work and study.

7) Solve this problem, please.

8) Dissolve some salt in water.

IV. Просмотрите текст, ответьте на вопросы:

1) What was Henry Cavendish?

2) When and where did Cavendish live?

3) What did Cavendish discover?

4) Is water an element?

5) How did Cavendish prove that water is a compound?

FATHER OF OUR COUNTRY

"George Washington (1732-1799) won a lasting place in American History as the "Father of our country". For nearly twenty years he guided his country much as a father cares for a growing child."

In three important ways, Washington helped shape the beginning of United States. First, he commanded the Continental Army that won American independence from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. Second, Washington served as president of the convention that wrote the United States Constitution. Third, he was elected the first President of the United States.

The people of his day loved Washington. His army officers would have made him king if he had let them. From the Revolutionary War on, his birthday was celebrated each year throughout the Country.

Washington lived an exciting life in exciting times. As a boy, he explored the wilderness. When he grew older, he helped the British fight the French and Indians. Many times he was nearly killed. As a general he suffered hardships with his troops in the cold winters. He lost many battles, but led the American Army to final victory. After he became President, he successfully solved many problems in turning the plans of the Constitution into a working government.

Washington went to school only until he was about 14 or 15. But he learned to make the most of all his abilities and opportunities. Washington's remarkable patience and his understanding of others helped him win people to his side in times ox hardship and discouragement.

Washington; s appearance caused admiration and respect. He was tall, strong, and broad-shouldered. As he grew older cares lined his face and gave him a somewhat stern appearance. He had a large and straight rather than a prominent nose; blue-grey penetrating eyes; dark brown hair which he wore in a queue. His movements and gestures were graceful, his walk majestic. Washington set his own strict rules of conduct, but he also enjoyed having a good time. He laughed at jokes, though he seldom told any.

Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration was maturely weighed; refraining when he saw a doubt, but, when once decided, going through with his purpose whatever obstacles opposed. "He was indeed, in every sense of the words, a wise, a good and a great man" wrote Thomas Jefferson.

Washington belonged to an old colonial family that believed in hard work, in public service and in worshipping God. George Washington was born in Westmoreland county, Va., on a farm, later known as Wake, field, on February 22. 1732. His first American ancestor came to Virginia from England in 1657. Farming, land buying, trading, milling, and the iron industry were means by which the family rose in the world.

George's father, Augustine, had four children by his first wife and six by his second wife, Mary Ball, George's mother.

Of George's early life little is known. His formal education was slight: no more than 7 or 8 years of school. Men, plantation life and the haunts of river, field, and forest were his principle teachers.

Augustine died when George was 11, leaving several farms. Ferry farm went to George when he reached 21. His favourite subject was arithmetic. He studied enough history and geography to know something of the outside world. But he never learned as much about literature, foreign languages and history as did Thomas Jefferson or James Medison.

At the age of 14 he began work as a surveyor, making many trips into the wilderness areas of Virginia and Pennsylvania. His first military experience came in the French and Indian War (1754-63), when he was sent on two missions deep into the Ohio county. The War estranged Washington from the British. Thereafter, he never expressed a feeling of affection for them.

Washington retired to Mount Vernon which he inherited after his brother's death. In 1759 he married Martha Dandridge, a widow. Her first husband had left her a fortune of about 17.000 acres (6.880 hectares) of land, 150 slaves and $360.000. Washington became a loving stepfather to Martha's two children. He and Martha had no children of their own.

As a planter, Washington concentrated at first on tobacco raising. He sооn learned that it did not pay. He developed a fishery, increased his production of wheat, and operated a mill. He was a progressive farmer.

In 1760's the American colonists grew angrier and angrier at the taxes placed on them by Great Britain. In September 1771 the Continental Congress met, where Washington had his first chance to meet and talk with leaders of other colonies. The members were impressed with his judgement and military knowledge. He was sent to attend the Second Continental Congress (1775) where he was elected a commander in chief of the Continental Army. He proved himself a capable commander of the War of Independence.

In 1787 Washington was unanimously chosen president of the Continental Convention and later overwhelmingly elected first president of the republic (1789), followed by re-election (1792). In his two terms he established innumerable precedents and left a permanent stamp on the office of the presidency.

George Washington died after an illness of two days on Dec.14, 1799. He went for his daily horseback ride around Mount Vernon. The day was cold with snow turning into rain and sleet. Washington returned after five hours and sat down to dinner without changing his damp clothes. The next day he awoke with a sore throat. He went for a walk. In the afternoon he had difficulty speaking and was quite ill. The illness was "inflammatory quinsy". He was bled thrice. At 10 p.m. on December 14, Washington whispered: "I am going. Have me decently buried, and do not let my body be put in the vault in less than two days after I am dead." Then he died.

No other American has been honoured 'more than Washington. The nation's capital, Washington D.C., was named after him. There the giant Washington Monument stands. The state of Washington is the only state named after a President. Many cities, parks, streets, bridges, lakes, and schools bear his name. Washington's portrait appears on postage stamps, on the $1 bill, and on the quarter.

I. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. When did Georqe begin to work?

2. when did he retire?

3. What happened in 1775?

4. When did he die?

5. Is there the state named alter Washington?

II. Определите, правильны или неправильны утверждения

1. He didn't study history.

2. He married in 1750.

3. George's wile had 2 children.

4. The state of Washington is the only one named after a President.

III. Какие глаголы используются для описания работы на плантации?

IV. Найдите тексте омонимы следующих слов:

1) there 3) too 5) no

2) inn 4) eye

V. Задайте вопросы к следующим ответам

а. His favourite subject was arithmetic

b. He was a progressive farmer

c. He went for his daily horseback ride

d. Many cities, parks, streets bear his home

VI. Закончите предложения:

1. The members were impressed...

2. He developed a fishery...

3. But he never learned...

VII. Найдите предложения в страдательном залоге в последнем абзаце.

VIII. Запомните следующие слова:

1) ancestor 3) fortune 5) stepfather

2) quinsy 4) tax 6) to elect

CHICAGO.

1. The Chicago flag consists of four red stars and two blue stripes on a white background. The stars commemorate important events in the city’s history: the building of Fort Dearborn in 1803 -–1804, the great Chicago Fire of 1871, which cost 250 lives and left almost 100.000 Chicagoans homeless, the World’s Columbine Exposition of 1893, held in celebration of the 400-th anniversary of Columbus discovery f America, and a century of Progress of 1933 – 1934, which marked Chicago’s hundredth birthday.

2. Chicago stands upon an Alluvial¹ plain formed by the Chicago and Calumet rivers. The North and South branches of the Chicago River divides the city into some parts known as the North Side, the South Side and the West Side. The Chicago River is widely known as the river which flows backward, or which runs up-hill. This is because the flow of the water was reversed in 1900. Until that time the river flowed into Lake Michigan, where it polluted the drinking water and contributed greatly to disease.

3. Lake Michigan provides an unfailing supply of water for drinking and industrial purposes. The water is pumped from six so-called “cribs”, located well out in the lake, through underground tunnels to pumping stations located on land. Here the water is treated in order to free it impurities.

It is then brought through smaller water mains² to houses and places of business in every section of the city and to many suburbs as well. Lake Michigan acts as an air conditioner. In summer the cool breezes from the lake moderate the air and the warmer lake winds tend to diminish the cold on the land. Because of the lake, long periods of intense heart or cold are unusual in Chicago.

4. The line of the lake front, somewhat north of its middle point, borders the principal business centre, known as the Loop, where the skyscrapers cluster. A little to the east is the harbour. Further South, along the Calumet river and the harbour, are the docks.

5. Located on the south-west shore of Lake Michigan, Chicago has a population of more then three million, and although no longer America’s food – processing and meat – packing centre, it produces more steel, more cookies and candy, more radios and TV-sets, and more paint machine tools than any other area in US.

6. Chicago is one of the most architecturally interesting cities of the country. The world’s first skyscraper was built in Chicago in 1884, and in the following decade many of these buildings were raised on the steel skeletons that allowed them to soar to great heights and get look light and graceful.

Notes:

1. alluvial – made of or by sand, mud or each washed down by rain or rivers.

2. main – a principal pipe carrying water, gas etc.

I. Перед тем как приступить к работе над текстом найдите по словарю значения следующих слов:

1.to commemorate; 2.backward; 3.to pollute; 4.disease; 5.suburb; 6.because of; 7.somewhat; 8.harbor; 9.candy; 10.height; 11.to fail; 12.to diminish.

II. Прочитайте текст за 20 минут и выберите заголовок, соответствующий его содержанию:

1. The history of Chicago.

2. The role of Lake Michigan in Chicago’s life.

3. Chicago as one of large American cities.

III. Прочитайте первый абзац текста и ответьте на вопросы к нему:

1. How does the Chicago flag look like ?

2. What do stars commemorate ?

3. What Fire took place in 1871 ?

IV. Прочитайте второй абзац текста и ответьте, какие из предложенных утверждений соответствуют его содержанию:

1. Chicago stands on an alluvial plain formed by three rivers.

2. The north and the south branches of Chicago River divide the city into three parts.

3. It is until 1900 the Chicago River flowed into Lake Michigan.

V. Письменно переведите третий абзац текста.

VI. Прочитайте 4-й и 5-й абзацы текста и ответьте, какие утверждения соответствуют их содержанию:

1. A little to the east of the Lake Michigan is the business centre.

2. The docks are situated farther south, along the Chicago River.

3. Chicago is a large city with the population of more than three million.

4. Chicago is a large industrial centre of U.S.

VII. Какие из данных утверждений наиболее полно отражают содержание 6-го абзаца:

1. Chicago is the most architecturally interesting city in America.

3. Chicago is one of the most architecturally interesting cites in America.

Часть II

Общенаучные тексты для дополнительного чтения

FROM THE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN OF SCIENCE

Science had its origin in some distant era when people began to show desire to know about their environment and to record what they saw. In time, studies of these observations led to the idea that nature is knowable, that it operates according to "laws".

The actual birth of science took place in prehistoric times, pro­bably in Egypt and Babilonia, more than 2,000 years before our era.

But true progress in science did not begin until about the sixth century before our era, when the Greek civilisation began to flourish. The next 500 years was the age of the great philosophers of anti­quity — Thales, Pythagorus, Aristotle, Archimedes, and others.

Archimedes discovered some of the basic laws governing me­chanisms and floating bodies. To Archimedes we owe the first ap­plication of mathematics to the description of nature. He was very far in advance of his time.

In the period from the Greeks to the Renaissance few contribu­tions were made to the development of science. First in importance among the scientific achievements of the Renaissance was the idea that the sun, rather than the earth, is the centre of our system of sun, moon, and planets. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the prevailing idea was that of an earth-centred universe, as de­scribed by Ptolomy.

The Polish astronomer N. Copernicus assumed that the earth is merely one of the planets and that all of them moved about the sun. It is hard now to understand the courage required to advance an idea of this nature because of the great wave of opposition which .confronted Copernicus.

COMMENTARY

did not begin until about the sixth century начался приблизительно только в шестом столетии

far in advance значительно опередил

Rather than the earth а не земля

to advance an idea of this natureвыдвинуть подобную мысль

because of вследствие, из за

A LESSON IN THE HISTORY OF LITTLE THINGS

Until the beginning of the seventeenth century mankind had little understanding of the structure of the material world. Man believed that stones were stones, fire was fire, and water was simply water. Now we know that all kinds of substances consist of very small invisible particles — atoms. They make up all the elements and com­pounds that exist in the world, the air that man breathes, the ground on which he walks, man's food. Their interactions provide the energy that man uses.

In this connection, the question at once arises what are atoms like? The determination of the exact nature of nature was a very difficult and interesting problem. For a hundred years some of the best men of science on earth thought of it, and today many scientists do a lot of research.

The word atom came from the Greek and means "indivisible". The ancient Greeks studied the structure of matter and noted that it is possible to divide and further subdivide a stone until the par­ticles become like powder, which they thought was the limit of divi­sibility. The same was true for other common substances, such as wood or -water or minerals. They called .these smallest panicles atoms. But since the Greeks were philosophers arid not experimenters, they had no real-understanding and knowledge of the true structure of matter.

It was at the beginning of the nineteenth century that the scien­tists first established experimentally the atomic theory of the struc­ture of matter. They found that the simple forms of matter were chemical elements which consisted of atoms —particles of very small size.

At the end of the nineteenth century scientists achieved a great quantity of information on the atomic structure of matter and the general nature of the atom. They discovered most of the chemical elements and found that the atoms of each element were different in chemical and physical properties from the properties of other ele­ments.

A further discovery was that the atoms combine in small num­bers and form units of matter or molecules and that in all substan­ces the atoms and molecules are in a state of rapid motion. Besides, some fundamental chemical characteristics became clear. One of these was that atoms group according to their atomic weights into eight groups the chemical properties of which are similar.

ПОЯСНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ

have little understanding мало понимать

at once сразу, тотчас же

what are atoms like что представляют собой атомы

all kinds of substances всевозможные вещества

a great quantity of очень много

in this connection в связи с этим

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

To understand the electronic theory, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the structure of matter. In elementary physics we are taught that matter consists of very small particles called molecules. These molecules are the smallest physically divisible parts of matter—physically divisible because they can be further subdivided by other means into. smaller particles, for instance, by chemical means.

A molecule of water consists of three of these particles: two of hydrogen and one of oxygen. These smaller particles are called atoms. A molecule of water is, therefore, made up of three atoms. Similarly, any substance can always be subdivided into atoms. In some elements, the atom is the same as the molecule.

The atom is still further divisible into smaller kinds of particles which are nothing but particles of positive and negative electricity. Each atom has a nucleus electrically positive and consisting of-particles of which the main are the proton, and the neutrons. Out­side the nucleus and very far apart from it move electrons, which are negative particles of electricity. All the protons and electrons are the same in all kinds of atoms and the properties of matter are dependent on the way in which they are arranged.

The atom as a whole is neutral, since in any atom there are as many protons as there are electrons, so if one of the electrons leaves the atom, it becomes positively charged.

ПОЯСНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ

for instance например

which are nothing but particlesкоторые являются не чем иным, как частицами

As a whole в целом as many ... as столько же ... сколько

STATES OF MATTER SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

To understand the various states of matter and their connection to each other, we must understand the meaning of the word mo­lecule.

We can divide a piece of material into small parts and then sub­divide each of these small parts into still smaller parts. We shall continue this process of division until the parts become very, very small. In the end they will become so small that it will be impos­sible to divide them further. We call these smallest particles atoms. They are the fundamental building blocks of all materials and they have a definite attraction for each other.

Atoms combine into molecules and molecules may contain one, two, three and more atoms. In metals there is only one atom in a molecule, for example.

The molecules of a solid are very close together and have a great attraction for each other. The -closer they are together, the heavier is the solid; however, the molecules are in a state of continual vibra­tion. In this state their attraction for each other is very great, and that is why it is very difficult to change the shape of a solid.

Now, if we heat the solid, the molecules begin to vibrate more and more and therefore there is less attraction for each other. Thus, a solid expands when we heat it. When the molecules are quite far apart from each other, the solid changes into a liquid.

If we continue to heat the liquid, the molecules begin to vibrate so strongly and they move so far apart from each other that they will have very little attraction for each other. Now the liquid be­comes a gas which has no definite size.

The three states of matter — solid, liquid and gaseous — are very close to each other and more heat or less heat will change the substance from one state to the other. Ice, water and steam are examples of this change of state.

ПОЯСНЕНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ

...have a great attraction for each other сильно притягивают друг друга

They move so far apart from each other они так далеко отодвигаются друг от друга

WHAT IS AN ELECTRON?

What is an electron? We can think of the electron as a very small, indivisible, fundamental particle—a major constituent of all 'matter. All electrons appear to be iden­tical and to have properties that do not change with time. Two essential characteristics of the electron are its mass and its charge. Qualitatively, we can think of an electron as a "piece of matter" that has weight and is affected by gravity. Just as the mass of any object is defined, we can define the mass of the electron by applying a force and measuring the resulting rate of change in the velocity of the electron, that is, the rapidity with which its velocity changes. This rate of change is called acceleration, and the electron mass is then defined as the ratio of the applied force to the resulting acceleration. The mass of the electron is found to be about 9.11 X 10-²⁸ grams.¹ Not only the elec­tron but all matter appears to have positive mass, which is equivalent to saying that a force applied to any object re­sults in an acceleration ² in the same direction as the force.

How does the other aspect, the charge of the electron, arise? If we investigate further, we find that all electrons have an electric charge, and the amount of charge, like the mass, is identical for all electrons. No one has ever succeed­ed in isolating an amount of charge smaller than that of the electron. The sign of the charge of the electron fs con­ventionally defined as negative; the electron thus represents the fundamental unit of a negative charge.

No experiment has yet succeeded in removing the charge from the electron, leaving only its mass. Therefore, instead of considering the electron a "massive" body that has some-how acquired a charge, it seems more realistic to think that the charge and the mass are two inseparable aspects of a single unity.

The motion of an electron, like that of any other body, results from a force acting on it. How can force be applied to an electron? One way is by gravity. Another is by bring­ing a second charge near the electron, thus exerting an at­tractive or a repulsive force on it. In this case we may say that the second charge sets up an electric field which ap­plies a force to the first charge. Finally, we find that an electric current flow will affect the motion of a nearby charge, but only if that charge is already in motion. In this case, we say that the current sets up a magnetic field which applies a force to the moving charge. These three are the only known ways of applying force to an electron. The relationship between these fields, the charges pro­ducing them and the resulting effects on other charges are the Jaws or electron motion.

Notes

1. 9.1 IX 10-²⁸ grams—nine point eleven multiplied by ten to the minus twenty-eighth power

2. to result in an acceleration — вызывать ускорение

GRAVITATION

Gravitation is a very important force in the universe. Every object has a gravitational pull which is like magnet­ism. But, unlike magnetism, gravitation is not only in iron and steel. It is in every object large or small; but large objects, such as earth, have a stronger pull than small ones.

Isaac Newton, the great scientist of the seventeenth century, first studied gravitation. When he was a boy, he often saw how apples fell to the ground. He wondered why they fell towards the earth and why they did not fly up into the sky.

According to ^l the law which he later produced every­thing in the universe attracts everything else towards it­self. The sun attracts the earth and the earth attracts the sun. The earth attracts the moon and the moon attracts the sun. Although the bigger object has the stronger attraction, all objects, in fact,² have some attraction too but we do not notice the gravitational pull of a book be­cause the pull of the earth is very much greater.