Now fill in the “word tree” below by putting a term in each box. Some words are filled in for you. Try to give some kind of organization to the tree

Now fill in the “word tree” below by putting a term in each box. Some words are filled in for you. Try to give some kind of organization to the tree - student2.ru

Supplementary Reading

A new Era for Aircraft

Aviation experts expect that today's aircraft will be replaced with some new form of supersonic transport. A 21^st century hypersonic aircraft may open a new age of aircraft design.

The designers of this country displayed the project of such a
supersonic passenger liner among the prospective models at the Aerospace Salon held on the old Le Bourget airfield in Paris. An
elongated fuselage with a sharp nose and without a horizontal stabilizer
makes it look more like a rocket. The speed matches the looks. This
plane will fly at a speed five to six times above the speed of sound, e.g. it
will cover the distance between Tokyo and Moscow in less than two
hours. The diameter of the fuselage will be 4 meters and the overall
length - 100 meters, with the cabin accommodating 300 passengers. The
future super planes of such a class will have no windows, but the
passengers can enjoy watching the panorama of the Earth on the TV
monitor at the front of the cabin. They will fly so fast that ordinary
aircraft windows would make the structure too weak to withstand the
stresses at such a speed. At high velocities the air resistance in the lower atmosphere is so great that the skin is heated to very high temperature, the only way out is to fly higher. Therefore, airliners' routes will mainly lie in the stratosphere.

In general, to build a reliable hypersonic plane one has to overcome a whole set of technological and scientific difficulties. Apart from creating highly economical combined engines and heat-insulating materials designers have to make such an amount of thermodynamic computations that can't be performed without using supercomputers. One of the ways to make planes as economical as possible is lightening the aircraft by substituting new composite materials for conventional metal alloys. Accounting for less than 5 per cent of the overall aircraft weight, the percentage of composite material parts will exceed 25 per cent in new generation models. An extensive use of new materials combined with better aerodynamics and engines will allow increasing fuel efficiency by one-third.

Because of the extreme temperatures generated by atmosphere friction, a hypersonic aircraft will also require complicated cooling measures. One possibility is using cryogenic fuels, such as liquid hydrogen, as both coolants and propellants. The fuel flowing through the aircraft's skin would cool the surfaces as it vaporizes before being injected into combustion chamber.

In addition, specialists in many countries are currently working on new propeller engines considered much more economical and less noisy than jets. The only disadvantage is that propeller planes fly slower than jet planes. However, it has recently been announced that specialists succeeded in solving this problem. As a result a ventilator engine with a propeller of ten fiber-glass blades has been built, each being five meters long. It will be mounted inthe experimental passenger plane.

Notes to the Text:

1. Le Bourget airfield - аэропорт Ле Бурже

2. the looks - внешний вид

3. heat-insulating materials - теплоизолирующие материалы

4. accounting for - составляя

5. coolant - охлаждающая жидкость

TU-154

The Tu-154 was developed to meet the Aeroflot requirement for a new aircraft to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, plus the Antonov An-10 and Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. The requirement required economic efficiency on routes from 500 to 3500 km, higher speed than the Tu-104, 50% more passenger capacity, and the ability to operate from runways as short as 2300 meters with low pavement loads.

The Tu-154 first flew on October 4, 1968.

In 1988 modified Tu-154 (dubbed Tu-155 and Tu-156) successfully flew on liquid hydrogen and in 1989 on liquified natural gas used as a fuel in its engines.

The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines . All Tu-154 aircraft models have a high thrust-to-weight ratio, this gives them superior performance, although at the expense of poorer fuel efficiency, which became an important factor as the fuel costs grew.

Like the Tupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wing swept back at 35 degrees at the quarter-chord line. The Tu-154 has an oversized landing gear enabling it to land on runways with low permissible pavement loadings. The aircraft has two six-wheel main bogies fitted with large low-pressure tyres which retract into pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings, plus a two-wheel nose gear unit. Shock absorbers provide smooth ride on the bumpy airfields.

The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up to 180 passengers in high-density layout.

The plane's avionics suite, for the first time in the Soviet Union, is built to Western airworthiness standards and includes an NVU-B3 doppler navigation system, a triple autopilot, an autothrottle, a Doppler drift and speed measure system (DISS), "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite and others. Modern upgrades normally include a TCAS, GPS and other modern systems. About 900 of Tu-154s have been built, 500 of which are still in service. Many variants of this airliner have been built.

The Tu-154M is the deeply upgraded version, which first flew in 1982 and entered mass production in 1984. It uses more fuel-efficient Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans. Together with significant aerodynamic refinement, this led to much lower fuel consumption and therefore longer range. The aircraft has new double-slotted (instead of tripple-slotted) flaps, with an extra 36-degree position (in addition to existing 15, 28 and 45-degree positions on older versions), which allows reduction of noise on approach. It also has a relocated auxiliary power unit and numerous other improvements.

IL-96

The Ilyushin Il-96 is a four-engined long-range widebody airliner, which incorporates advanced achievements in Russian and foreign aerospace technology. The IL-96-300 aircraft is designed by Ilyushin Aviation Complex. The aircraft is powered by four turbofan two-shaft Aviadvigatel PS-90 engines.

The Ilyushin Il-96 is a shortened, long-range, and advanced technology development of Russia's first widebody airliner, the Ilyushin Il-86. Its fuselage is about 4m shorter than that of the IL-86. The airframe is made with a new type high-purity aluminium alloy as well as titanium and steel alloys. Quite extensive use is made of composite materials. The upper and lower surfaces of the wing leading edge and the trailing edge, aft of the rear spar are made of honeycomb panels.

It features supercritical wings fitted with winglets, a glass cockpit, and a fly-by-wire control system. It was first flown in 1988 and certificated in 1992.

The IL-96-300 aircraft equipped with modern Russian made avionics which includes six multi functional color-LCD displays, electro remote management system, inertial navigation system, collision air avoidance system and satellite navigation equipment, and equipment permitting executes flights in RVSM conditions. It allows operating the airplane with two crew members. The avionics correspond to modern requirements on international routes in Europe and North America.

The Il-96-300 has a passenger cabin layout for 262 seats, 18 seats with pitch equal to 54 inches plus 244 seats with pitch equal to 32 inches. Galleys are positioned on the upper deck, 18 containers LD-3 and crew rest room are positioned on the lower deck. There is also stipulated a converting of this layout to the 289 seats layout by changing seats in the business class section from 18 to 44 with seats pitch of 34".

The Tu-160

The Tu-160 supersonic strategic bomber was manufactured by the Tupolev Aircraft Research and Engineering Complex Joint Stock Company in Moscow and the Kazan based Gorbunov Aircraft Production Association in Tatarstan from 1980 to 1992. Production has since been restarted and a Tu-160 was delivered to the Russian Air Force in May 2000.

The purpose of the aircraft is the delivery of nuclear and conventional weapons deep in continental theatres of operation. The aircraft has all-weather day-and-night capability and can operate at all geographical latitudes. The aircraft has an operational range of 14,000km and a service ceiling of 16,000m. The maximum flight speed is 2,000kph at high altitude and 1,030kph at low altitude.

The bomber's airframe has a distinctive appearance, with the wing and fuselage gradually integrated into a single-piece configuration. The airframe structure is based on a titanium beam. Throughout the entire airframe, all the main airframe members are secured to the titanium beam.

The variable geometry outer tapered wings sweep back from 20 to 65 degrees in order to provide high-performance flight characteristics at both supersonic and subsonic speeds. The tail surfaces, both horizontal and vertical, are one piece and all-moving.

The aircraft uses fly-by-wire controls.

The aircraft is equipped with three-strut landing gear, a tail wheel and a brake parachute. For take-off the aircraft requires a concrete runway of 3,050m.

The crew of the Tu-160 comprises a pilot and co-pilot, a navigator, and an operator. The four crew members are equipped with ejection seats, which provide the crew with the option of ejecting safely throughout the entire range of altitudes and air speeds, including when the aircraft is parked.

In the cockpit and cabins, all the data is presented on conventional electro-mechanical indicators and monitors. The Tu-160 has a control stick for flight control as used in a fighter aircraft - rather than control wheels or yokes, which are usually used in large transporter or bomber aircraft.

The Tu-160 can carry nuclear and conventional weapons including long-range missiles. The missiles are accommodated on multi-station launchers in each of the two weapons bays.

The aircraft is highly computerized and the avionics systems include an integrated aiming, navigation and flight control system with a navigation and attack radar, an electronic countermeasures system, and automatic controls.

The aircraft propulsion system consists of four NK-32 augmented turbofan engines, each provides maximum thrust of 25,000kg. The engines are installed in two pods under the shoulders of the wing. The bomber has an in-flight refueling system. In the inoperative position the refueling probe is retracted into the nose of the fuselage in front of the pilot's cabin. The aircraft fuel capacity is 160,000kg.

MiG-29

The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a fighter aircraft designed for the air superiority role in the Soviet Union. Developed in the 1970s by the Mikoyan design bureau, it entered service in 1983 and remains in use by the Russian Air Force as well as in many other nations.

The MiG-29 is aerodynamically broadly similar to the Sukhoi Su-27, but with some notable differences. It is built largely out of aluminium with some composite materials. It has a mid-mounted swept wing with blended leading-edge root extensions (LERXs) swept at around 40°. There are swept tailplanes and two vertical fins, mounted on booms outboard of the engines. Automatic slats are mounted on the leading edges of the wings; they are four-segment on early models and five-segment on some later variants. On the trailing edge, there are maneuvering flaps and wingtip ailerons.

The MiG-29 has hydraulic controls and a three-axis autopilot but, unlike the Su-27, does not have a fly-by-wire control system. Nonetheless, it is very agile, with excellent instantaneous and sustained turn performance, high alpha capability, and a general resistance to spins. The controls have "soft" limiters to prevent the pilot from exceeding the gand alpha limits, but these can be disabled manually.

The MiG-29 has two widely spaced Klimov RD-33 turbofan engines, each rated at 50.0 kN . The space between the engines generates lift, thereby reducing effective wing loading, to improve maneuverability. The engines are fed through wedge-type intakes fitted under the LERXs, which have variable ramps to allow high-Mach speeds. As an adaptation to rough-field operations, they can be closed completely for takeoff, landing and low-speed flying, thereby preventing ingestion of ground debris.

The internal fuel capacity of the original MiG-29B is only 4,365 liters distributed between six fuel tanks, four in the fuselage and one in each wing. As a result, the aircraft has a very limited range in line with the original Soviet requirements for a point-defense fighter. For longer flights, this can be supplemented by a 1,500 liter drop tank carried on the centerline and, on later production batches, by two underwing drop tanks, each capable of 1,150 liters. In addition, a small number of MiG-29s have been fitted with port-side inflight refueling probes, allowing much longer flight times by using a probe-and-drogue system.

The pilot is seated on a Zvezda K-36DM zero-zero ejection seat which has had impressive performance in emergency escapes.

The cockpit has conventional dials, with a head-up display (HUD) and a Shchel-3UM helmet-mounted sight, but no HOTAS ("hands-on-throttle-and-stick") capability.

Mig-35

The Mikoyan MiG-35 is a mature development of the MiG-29M/M2 and MiG-29K/KUB technology.

The main features of the new design are the fifth generation information-sighting systems, compatibility Russian and foreign origin weapons application and integrated a variety of defence system to increase combat survivability. Overall design subverts the design concept of the baseline model and enables the new aircraft to conduct full scale of multi role missions as their western counterparts.

New avionics are intend to allow the aircraft to retain air superiority against fourth and fifth generation fighters, as well as to perform all weather precise ground strike, air reconnaissance with optical-electronic and radio-technical equipment, and conduct complex join missions.

The airframe also took advantages from previous developments of the MiG-29K/KUB, MiG-29M/M2. The new aircraft has more weight load on nine pylons, further increase in fuel capacity, anti-corrosion protection, significant reduced in radar signature, and a quadruple redundancy fly-by-wire control system.

Reliability measures are being enforced in the new design. The airframe lifetime and service life are extended, introduced new engines with longer mean time between overhauls, hence result a decrease in flight hour cost at almost 2.5 times in compare to those of the old variants. On-condition maintenance is being practice in the new design concept. New smokeless engine also offer a better concealing feature.

The RD-33MK is the latest revised version of the RD-33 and was intend to power the MiG-29K and MiG-29KUB. It has a 7% higher horsepower in comparison with the baseline model due to the usage of modern materials on the cooled blades, hence provide a higher thrust at 9,000 kgf. New engines are smokeless and also contain systems that reduce infrared and optical visibility.

New modification includes active electronically scanned array radar and introduced an optical complex, consisting of the newly designed Optical Locator System (OLS) to replace previous IRST sensor, additional OLS under the right air intake and one pair of laser emission detectors on each wing tip.

The new airborne AESA radar offers a wider range of operating frequencies thus provide more endurance against electronic countermeasures (ECM), more detection range, more quantity of air and ground targets simultaneously to be detected, tracked and make possible to conduct engagement on them.

The OLS, a breaking development from space technologies incorporates the helmet-mounted target designation system provides targeting solutions for both ground and air targets at front and rear hemisphere of the aircraft. The most vital different from the previous IRST sensor is that the new device provide not only a better operation range, but also offers a manual adjustable graphic options of IR view, TV mode and mix of both, significantly improved device-user coordination.

The aircraft is designed to be compatible with foreign avionics and weapon systems.

KA-50

The Kamov Ka-50 Black Shark is a single-seat Russian attack helicopter with the distinctive coaxial rotor system of the Kamov design bureau. It was designed in the 1980s and adopted for service in the Russian army in 1995.

The Ka-50 is unique as an attack helicopter in that it is the world's first and only single seat attack helicopter, the first coaxial attack helicopter, and the first attack helicopter with zero-zero ejection seat.

The Ka-50 was designed to be small, fast, and agile to improve survivability and lethality. For minimal weight and size (thus maximal speed and agility) it was designed uniquely to be operated by a single pilot only.

Like other Kamov's helicopters, it features Kamov's characteristic contra-rotating co-axial rotor system, which removes the need for the entire tail-rotor assembly and improves the aircraft's aerobatic qualities - it can perform loops, rolls, and “the funnel” where the aircraft maintains a line-of-sight to target while flying circles of varying altitude, elevation, and airspeed around it. Using two rotors means that a smaller rotor with slower moving rotor tips can be used compared to a single rotor design. The elimination of the tail rotor is a qualitative advantage because the torque-countering tail rotor can waste up to 30% of engine power.

The Ka-50 was the first helicopter fitted with an ejector seat for improved pilot survivability; this was also seen as a psychological factor enhancing the pilot's combat courage. Before the rocket in the K-37-800 ejection seat kicks in, rotor blades are blown away by explosive charges in the rotor disc and the canopy is similarly jettisoned.

The aircraft carries a substantial load of weapons in four external hardpoints under the stub wings plus two on the wingtips, a total of some 2,300 kg depending on the mix.

The main armament are the twelve laser-guided Vikhr anti-tank missiles with a maximum range of some 10 km. The laser guidance is reported to be virtually jam-proof and the system features automatic guidance to target enabling evasive movement immediately after missile launch. The fire control system automatically shares all target information among the four Black Sharks of a typical flight in real time, allowing one helicopter to engage a target spotted by another, and the system also can input target information from ground-based forward scouts with man-portable target designation gear. The integrated 30mm cannon is semi-rigidly fixed on the helicopter's side, movable only slightly in elevation and azimuth. The aircraft's agility allows the weapon control system to turn (the entire helicopter and) the cannon at the target acquired in the pilot's helmet sight.

Sukhoi Su-47

The Sukhoi Su-47 Berkut also designated S-32 and S-37 during initial development, is an experimental supersonic jet fighter developed by Sukhoi Aviation Corporation. A distinguishing feature of the aircraft is its forward-swept wing.

The Su-47 was originally built as Russia's principal testbed for composite materials and sophisticated fly-by-wire control systems. The aircraft makes use of forward-swept wings allowing superb maneuverability and operation at angles of attack up to 45° or more.

TsAGI has long been aware of the advantages of forward-swept wings. Forward-swept wings offer lower wave drag, reduced bending moments, and delayed stall when compared to more traditional wing shapes. Unfortunately, forward sweep also induces twisting (divergence) strong enough to rip the wings off an aircraft built of conventional materials. Only recently have composite materials made the design of aircraft with forward-swept wings feasible.

The Su-47 is of similar dimensions to previous large Sukhoi fighters, such as the Su-35. To reduce development costs, the Su-47 borrowed the forward fuselage, vertical tails, and landing gear of the Su-27 family. Nonetheless, the aircraft includes reduced radar signature features (including radar absorbent materials), an internal weapons bay, and space set aside for an advanced radar.

To solve the problem of wing-twisting, the Su-47 makes use of composite materials carefully designed to resist twisting while still allowing the wing to bend for improved aerodynamic behavior. Due to its comparatively large wingspan, the Su-47 is to be equipped with folding wings, in order to fit inside hangars. Like its immediate predecessor, the Su-37, the Su-47 is of tandem-triplane layout, with canards ahead of wings and tailplanes. Interestingly, the Su-47 has two tailbooms of unequal length outboard of the exhaust nozzles. The shorter boom, on the left-hand side, houses rear-facing RADAR, while the longer boom houses a brake parachute.

The forward-swept midwing gives the unconventional appearance of the Su-47. A substantial part of the lift generated by the forward-swept wing occurs at the inner portion of the wingspan. The lift is not restricted by wingtip stall. The ailerons - the wing's control surfaces - remain effective at the highest angles of attack, and controllability of the aircraft is retained even in the event of airflow separating from the remainder of the wings' surface.

The wing panels are constructed of nearly 90% composites. The forward-swept midwing has a high aspect ratio, which contributes to long-range performance. The leading-edge root extensions blend smoothly to the wing panels, which are fitted with deflectable slats on the leading edge; flaps and ailerons on the trailing edge. The all-moving and small-area trapezoidal canards are connected to the leading-edge root extensions.

The disadvantage of such a wing design is that it produces strong rotational forces that try to twist the wings off, especially at high speeds. This twisting necessitates the use of a large amount of composites in order to increase the strength and durability of the wing. Despite this, the plane was initially limited to Mach 1.6. Recent engineering modifications have raised this limit.

The cockpit's design has focused on maintaining a high degree of comfort for the pilot and also on the pilot being able to control the aircraft in extremely high g-load manoeuvres. The aircraft is equipped with a new ejection seat and life support system. The variable geometry adaptive ejection seat is inclined at an angle of 60°, which reduces the impact of high g forces on the pilot. The seat allows dogfight maneuvers with significantly higher g loadings than can normally be tolerable. The Su-47 pilot uses a side-mounted, low-travel control stick and a tensiometric throttle control.

UNIT 1

From the History of flying

1. wing – крыло

2. safety - безопасность

3. pressure - давление

4. scientific - научный

5. flow – поток, течь

6. lift (lifting force) - подъёмная сила

7. device – устройство, агрегат

8. development – разработка, развитие

9. control – управление, управлять

10. plane – плоскость, самолёт