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Compounding, one of the oldest methods of word-formation occurring in all Indo-European languages, is especially developed in Germanic languages. English has made use of compounding in all periods of its existence. Headache, heartache, rainbow, raindrop and many other compounds of the type noun stem+noun stemand its variant, such as manslaughter <OE mannslæht with the deverbal noun stem for a second

REDUPLICATIVE COMPOUNDSIn what follows we shall describe some combinations that may be called compounds by right of pattern, as they very markedly consist of two parts, but otherwise in most cases fail to satisfy our definition of a compound word. Some of them contain only one free form, the other constituents being a variation of this, while there are also cases where both constituents are jocular pseudo-morphemes,

There are two important peculiarities distinguishing compounding in English from compounding in other languages. Firstly, both immediate constituents of an English compound are free forms, i.e. they can be used as independent words with a distinct meaning of their own. The conditions of distribution will be different but the sound pattern the same, except for the stress. The point may be illustrated by a brief list

Another essential feature of affixes that should not be overlooked is their combining power or valenсу and the derivational patterns in which they regularly occur. We have already seen that not all combinations of existing morphemes are actually used. Thus, unhappy, untrue and unattractive are quite regular combinations, while seemingly analogous *unsad, *UN-FALSE, *unpretty do not exist. The possibility of a

Lexicology is primarily concerned with derivational affixes, the other group being the domain of grammarians. The derivational affixes in fact, as well as the whole problem of word-formation, form a boundary area between lexicology and grammar and are therefore studied in both. Language being a system in which the elements of vocabulary and grammar are closely interrelated, our study of affixes cannot be complete

A synctironic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into immediate constituents (IC’s). Immediate constituents are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unity. First suggested by L. Bloomfield1 it was later developed by many linguists.2 The main opposition dealt with is the opposition of stem and affix. It is a kind of segmentation

A synchronic description of the English vocabulary deals with its present-day system and its patterns of word-formation by comparing words simultaneously existing in it.1 If the analysis is limited to stating the number and type of morphemes that make up the word, it is referred to as morphemic. For instance, the word girlishness may be analysed into three morphemes: the root -girl- and two suffixes -ish and -ness.

If we describe a wоrd as an autonomous unit of language in which a particular meaning is associated with a particular sound complex and which is capable of a particular grammatical employment and able to form a sentence by itself (see p. 9), we have the possibility to distinguish it from the other fundamental language unit, namely, the morpheme. A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a given

The extralinguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language: they are observed in changes of meaning resulting from the development of the notion expressed and the thing named and by the appearance of new notions and things. In other words, extralinguistic causes of semantic change are connected with the development of the human mind as it moulds reality to conform with its needs. Languages are

In the earlier stages of its development semasiology was a purely diachronic science dealing mainly with changes in the word meaning and classification of those changes. No satisfactory or universally accepted scheme of classification has ever been found, and this line of search seems to be abandoned. In comparison with classifications of semantic change the problem of their causes appears neglected. Opinions on

In the previous paragraphs we emphasised the complexity of word meaning and mentioned its possible segmentation into denotative and connotative meaning. In this paragraph we shall analyse these in greater detail. In most cases the denotative meaning is essentially cognitive: it conceptualises and classifies our experience and names for the listener some objects spoken about. Fulfilling the significative and the

The term notion (concept) is introduced into linguistics from logic and psychology. It denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects and phenomena in their essential features and relations. Each notion is characterised by its scope and content. The scope of the notion is determined by all the objects it refers to. The content of the notion is made up of all the features that distinguish it from other notions.

The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other. There are three main types of motivation: phonetical motivation, morphological motivation, and semantic motivation. When there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those referred to by the sense,

The treatment of words in lexicology cannot be divorced from the study of all the other elements in the language system to which words belong. It should be always borne in mind that in reality, in the actual process of communication, all these elements are interdependent and stand in definite relations to one another. We separate them for convenience of study, and yet to separate them for analysis is pointless,

The importance of English lexicology is based not on the size of its vocabulary, however big it is, but on the fact that at present it is the world’s most widely used language. One of the most fundamental works on the English language of the present — “A Grammar of Contemporary English” by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik (1978) — gives the following data: it is spoken as a native language

Chapter 2.Characteristics of the Word as the Basic Unit of Language ... 27 § 2.1 The Definition of the Word.................................................... 27 § 2.2 Semantic Triangle............................................................. 31 § 2.3 Phonetic, Morphological and Semantic Motivation of Words .... 33 Chapter 3.Lexical Meaning and Semantic Structure of English Words ... 37 § 3.1

1. __ do you study? 2. __ are you waiting for? 3. ___ does it take you to get to the university? 4. __ are you angry with me? 5. __ did he go to bed so late? 6. __ are these people in the room? 7. __ does it rain in autumn? 8. __ do you get up? 9. __ are you looking at me like that for? 10. __ is there on the table? 11. __ soon will you answer my letter? 12. __ do you say to having a drink? 13. __ did you lose your

1. I often wonder __. 2. Teachers always tell us __. 3. Mother sometimes asks me __. 4. The old often complain __. 5. A friend of mine never tells __. 6. People say __. 7. We all want to know __. 8. My parents have always said __. 9. Pupils like to ask __. 10. My granny often tells __. 11. The Dean would like to know __. 12. Newspapers inform us __. 13. Doctors advise __. 14. Ticket collectors threaten __. 15. The

1. I know whether we’ll ever marry. 2. I wonder what they deserve. 3. Most people hate that he loves me. 4. Some women never ramember why people divorce. 5. I’d like to know when they are cheated 6. I won’t give in who i could rely on. 7. Few people get what we study for. 8. I don’t understand which umbrella is theirs. 9. My parents are surprised how i