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§ 216. Semantically all pronouns fall into the following subclasses: I. Personal pronouns are noun-pronouns, indicating persons (I, you, he, we, they) or non-persons (it, they) from the point of view of their relations to the speaker. Thus I (me) indicates the speaker himself, we (us) indicates the speaker together with some other person or persons, you indicates the person or persons addressed, while he, she, they

§ 210. Only certain adjectives derived from participles reach full adjectival status. Among those in current use are interesting, charming, crooked, learned, ragged and those compounded with another element, which sometimes gives them quite a different meaning (good-looking, heart­breaking, hard-boiled, frost-bitten, weather-beaten, etc.). In most cases, however, the difference between the adjective and the

§ 206. 1. A noun in thesubject position is usually preceded by the definite article in its specifying function, or by either of the articles in their generic function. In these cases the noun denotes some notion forming the starting point of the utterance and therefore is presented as known to both the speaker and the addressee. The way was long. The wind was cold. The minstrel was infirm and old. The indefinite

I. Astronomical names. The Milky Way, the Great Bear, the Little (Lesser) Bear. II. Geographical names. 1. The North Pole, the South Pole, the Arctic, etc. 2. Mountain ranges: the Alps, the Pennines, the Urals. But single mounts take no article. 3. Rivers: the Thames, the Hudson, the Amazon, the Rein, the Nile, the Neva, the Danube, etc. 4. Seas and oceans: the North Sea, the Red Sea, the Black Sea, the Baltic

§ 191. The definite article implies that the speaker or the writer presents a person, a thing or an abstract notion as known to the listener or the reader, either from his general knowledge, or from the situation, or from the context. Hence, the two main functions of the definite article arespecifying and generic. § 192. The definite article in itsspecifying function serves to single out an object or a group of

The main functions of the indefinite article areclassifying, genericandnumerical. § 187. In its classifying function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind. We saw a speck in the distance. It was a ship. I am a school teacher. Somewhere a telephone began to ring. The door opened and a man entered. Janet lived alone in a small shabby house. He was a man I would be

A noun may be used in the function of almost any part of the sentence, although its most typical functions are those of the subject and the object. It may function as 1. Subject: The ship got under way. 2. Predicative: He was certainly the best hated man in the ship. 3. Object: I gave him a pound. Twelve dollars are enough for the man. 4. Objective predicative: I found him an excellent listener. 5. Attribute: A dog

The construction consists of the nominal element (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case) and participle II which form a syntactical complex, the nominal element and the participle being in subject-predicate relation. The preparation completed, we started off. The nominative absolute participial construction with participle being has the syntactical function of a detached adverbial modifier of

§ 139. Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability). The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical

This construction consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal element is participle I in any of its forms. The nominal and the verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. Unlike the objective participial construction it

§ 136. Participle I as parenthesis forms the headword of a participial phrase, the meaning of which is a comment upon the contents of the whole sentence or sometimes part of it. The comment may take the form of a logical restriction or personal attitude. Here we find such participial phrases as generally (properly, roughly, legally, strictly) speaking, putting it mildly, judging by (from), allowing for, taking

§ 128. Although formed in the same way as the gerund, the verbal noun is another part of speech and has no verbal features at all. The following table shows the main differences between the gerund and the verbal noun. Table VI The characteristics of the gerund and the verbal noun Forms Grammatical characteristics The gerund   The verbal noun   M o r Voice and perfect   being done,

to have to forget to intend to like (dislike) to plan to prefer to remember to regret   can’t bear can’t afford* * On the difference between the use of the gerund and the infinitive with some verbs see § 127. I can’t bear your (you) being so sad. We can’t afford going to the cinema too often now, we are revising for our exams. I prefer walking home (to taking a bus). After verbs taking an

Voice Perfect Active   Passive   Non-Perfect   running taking   - being taken   Perfect   having ran having taken   - having been taken The category of perfect § 118. The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the contrast of non-perfect (indefinite) and perfect forms. The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous

§ 113.The infinitive is used in predicative constructions of three types: the objective with the infinitive construction, and the so-called for-to-infinitive construction*. Traditionally they are called the complex subject, the complex object, and the for-to-infinitive complex. * It is possible, however, to distinguish one more infinitive construction generally called the subjective infinitive construction or the

§ 104. In the function of a predicative the “to”-infinitive is used in compound nominal predicates after the link verb to be: His dearest wish was to have a son. With homogeneous predicatives the use of the particle to varies. If the infinitives are not linked by conjunctions, the particle is generally used with all of them: My intention was to see her as soon as possible, to talk to her, to calm her. If they

§ 95. There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken). These forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can be used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.) Lexically non-finites do

1. After the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, so the quasi-subjunctive forms may (might) + infinitive or can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might and could are used if the action in the subordinate clause, though following the action in the main clause, refers to the past. But when the action refers to the present or future, both forms of each verb are possible (may or might, can or could). I tell you

Active: Passive: The man referredto this book. This book was referred to by the man. In the passive construction the subject of the prepositional passive construction corresponds to the object of the active construction and denotes the receiver of the action. The peculiarity of the construction is that the preposition sticks to the verb. Most verbs of this type denote the process of speaking, mental and