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§ 122. The third function of word order is to express continuity of thought in sentences (or clauses) following one another. This continuity is often supported by demonstrative pronouns and adverbs. Some people looked down on him. Those people he despised. They must sow their wild oats. Such was his theory. And, oh, that look! On that look Euphemia had spent much anxious thought. Women are terribly vain. So are men

§ 113. Independent elements of the sentence, as the term implies, generally are not grammatically dependent on any particular part of the sentence, but as a rule refer to the sentence as a whole. Only occasionally they may refer to a separate part of the sentence. The independent element may consist of a word or a phrase. Its position is more free than that of any other parts of the sentence and accordingly it may

§ 103. The identifying questions, of this adverbial are why? for what reason? because of what? due to what? Adverbials of reason are expressed by prepositional nominal phrases, participial and infinitive phrases, sometimes by absolute constructions. Most prepositions of reason are composite and the causal meaning of the phrase, and thus of the adverbial modifier, is due to the meaning of the preposition, for

§ 91. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.Non-detached appositions§ 92. Non-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks,

§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided intonondetached (close) anddetached (loose) ones.Non-detached attributes§ 88. Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their head­word and are not separated from it by commas. They generally adjoin the headword, either premodifying, postmodify­ing, or embedding it, and are

§ 85. An attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1. By (a) adjectives or (b) adjectival phrases, which characterize the person or non-person qualitatively or express the speaker’s attitude. a) The sand glittered like fine white sugar in the sun. I’ve never seen a better place. There is nothing unusual about the letter. Some composite adjectives may be derived fromother parts of speech by means

§ 68. The object can be expressed by: 1. A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase, a substantivized adjective or participle. I saw the boys two hours ago. The nurses were clad in grey. First of all she attended to the wounded. Greedily he snatched the bread and butter from the plate. 2. A noun-pronoun. Personal pronouns are in the objective case, other pronouns are in the common case, or in the only form they

§ 63. A plural verb-predicate is used in the following cases: 1. With homogeneous subjects connected by and. Sun and airare necessary for life. Tom and Maryare my friends. The ebb and the flow of the tideare regular. Note: However, with structures where coordinated nouns refer to one thing or person a singular verb-predicate is used. Bread and butteris not enough for breakfast. (one object is meant) Bacon and

§ 59. Compound predicates can combine elements of different types. Thus we have: 1. The compound modal verbal nominal predicate. Jane must feel better pleased than ever. She couldn’t be happy. He may have been ill then. 2. Тhe compound modal nominal verbal predicate. Are you able to walk another two miles? We were anxious to cooperate. 3. The compound phasal nominal predicate. He was beginning to look

The compound nominal predicate proper § 54. The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative (nominal part). The link verb is the structural element of the predicate, as it joins the subject and the predicative. It expresses the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect and mood. The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate. It characterizes the person

The compound verbal phasal predicate § 51. The compound verbal phasal predicate denotes the beginning, duration, repetition or cessation of the action expressed by an infinitive or a gerund. It consists of a phasal verb and an infinitive or a gerund, Accordingly its first component may be a phasal verb of: 1.Beginning: to begin, to start, to commence, to set about, to take to, to fall to, to come. Andrew and he

§ 47. From the structural point of view there are two main types of predicate: the simple predicate and the compound predicate. Both these types may be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound nominal. Compound verbal predicates may be further classified into phasal, modal and of double orientation Compound nominal predicates may be classified

§ 41. The subject is expressed by: 1. A noun in the common case (including substantivized adjectives and participles) or a nominal phrase with a noun. The fog is thinning. Science is not omnipotent. The blue of the sky deepened visibly. The dying must be left in peace. From Marlow up to Sonning is even fairer yet. Four and three is seven. A great number of frees were felled. Occasionally a noun in the genitive case

You knew that before, didn’t you? - Yes, I did.Negative statement - positive tag - negative answerYou didn’t know that before, did you? - No, I didn’t. The answer, however, may be unexpected, as in: You didn’t know that before, did you ? - But I did. The falling tone of the tag is also possible. It makes the whole sentence sound like a statement. The speaker actually knows the answer and can do without it.

§ 6. The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types, grammatically marked:declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences. These types differ in the aim of communication and expressstatements, questions, commands andexclamations respectively. Dickens was born in 1812. When shall I see you again?

§ 2. From the point of view of their structure, sentences can be: 1.Simple orcomposite (compound and complex). 2.Complete orincomplete (elliptical). 3.Two-member (double-nucleus) orone-member (single-nucleus). These three classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organisation of sentences and reflect its different aspects. The difference between the simple sentence and the composite

§ 252. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous parts of a simple sentence (words, phrases), clauses of equal rank in a composite sentence or independent sentences. Some of them can only join coordinated clauses (so, for), others only homogeneous parts of simple sentences (both ... and), others are used to join both clauses and homogeneous parts of the sentence (and, but, or, either ... or, nor, not only ...

§ 248. As a rule a preposition governs a noun. However it may also be followed by a pronoun, a gerundial phrase or a clause with nominal function, as in: for advantage,atfive o’clock,at taking measures, he was surprised at what he saw. As prepositions indicate only the relationship between two words their position is clearly defined. Many prepositions tend to form a phrase called aprepositional phrase,often

§ 242. Adverbs may perform different functions, modifying different types of words, phrases, sentences. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas others may modify different words, for instance enough, which may be used in to work enough, not quickly enough, quick enough. The most typical function of the adverb is that of adverbial modifier. The combinability and functions of the adverbs are as