Chapter VI Teaching Vocabulary

THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

'To know a language means to master its structure and words. Thus, vocabulary is one of the aspects of the language to be taught in school} The problem is what words and idioms pupils should retain. It is evident that the number of words should be limited because pupils have only 2—4 periods a week; the size of the group is not small enough to provide each pupil with practice in speaking; schools are not yet equipped with special laboratories for individual language learn­ing. The number of words pupils should acquire in school depends wholly on the syllabus requirements. The latter are determined by the conditions and method used. For example, experiments have proved that the use of programmed instruction for vo­cabulary learning allows us to increase the number of words to be learned since pupils are able to assimilate them while working independently with the programme.

The vocabulary, therefore, must be carefully selected in accordance with the principles of selecting linguistic material, the conditions of teaching and learning a foreign language in school.

Scientific principles of selecting vocabulary have been worked out.¹ The words selected should be: (1) frequently used in the language (the frequency of the word may be determined mathematically by means of statistic data); (2) easily com­bined (nice room, nice girl, nice weather); (3) unlimited from the point of view of style (oral, written); (4) included in the topics the syllabus sets; (5) valuable from the point of view of word-building (use, used, useful, useless, usefully, user, usage).

(The first principle, word frequency, is an example of a purely linguistic approach to word selection it is claimed to be the soundest criterion because it is completely objective. It is derived by counting the number of occurrences of words appearing in representative printed material comprising nov­els, essays, plays, poems, newspapers, textbooks, and maga­zines.

Modern tendency is to apply this principle depending on the language activities to be developed. For developing reading skills pupils need "reading vocabulary" (At. West), thus va­rious printed texts are analysed from the point of view of word frequency. For developing speaking skills pupils need "speak­ing vocabulary"^ In this case the material for analysis is the spoken language recorded. The occurrences of words are counted in it and the words more frequently used in speaking are selected.

(The other principles are of didactic value, they serve teach­ing aims)

The words selected may be grouped under the following two classes (M. West):

¹ Today we are greatly enlightened on the question of word values as the outcome of studies conducted by Thorndike and Horn in the USA. H. Palmer in Japan, M. West in India, E. Richards and С. К. Ogden in England. In the Soviet Union a great deal of work has been done on the problem of word selection by I. V. Rakhmanov and his colleagues in APS RSFSR in the 50's. As a result, first a list of words called „Словарь-минимум" and then „Словарь наиболее употребительных слов" have
appeared.

1. Words that we talk with or f о г m (structural) w о г d s which make up the form (structure) of the language.

2. Words that we talk about or с о n t e n t words.

In teaching vocabulary for practical needs both structural words and content words are of great importance. That is why they are included in the vocabulary minimum.

The number of words and phraseological units the syllabus sets for a pupil to assimilate is 1,200. They are distributed in the following way: 800 words in the eight-year school, the rest in the ten-year school. The textbooks now in use contain more word units than the syllabi set.

The selection of the vocabulary although important is not the teacher's chief concern. It is only the "what" of teaching and is usually prescribed for him by textbooks and study-guides he uses. The teacher's concern is "how" to get his pupils to assimilate the vocabulary prescribed. This is a difficult problem and it is still in the process of being solved.

It is generally known that school leavers' vocabulary is poor. They have trouble with hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. One of the reasons is poor teaching of vo­cabulary.

The teacher should bear in mind that a word is considered to be learned when: (I) it is spontaneously recognized while auding and reading; (2) it is correctly used in speech, i. c., the right word in the right place.

DIFFICULTIES PUPILS EXPERIENCE IN ASSIMILATING VOCABULARY

Learning the words of a foreign language is not an easy business since every word has its form, meaning, and usage and each of these aspects of the word may have its difficulties. Indeed, some words are difficult in form (daughter, busy, bury, woman, women) and easy in usage; other words are easy in form (enter, get, happen) and difficult in usage. Consequent­ly, words may be classified according to the difficulties pupils find in assimilation. In methodology some attempts have been made to approach the problem The analysis of the words within the foreign language allows us to distinguish the following groups of words: concrete, abstract, and structural.

Words denoting concrete things (book, street, sky), actions (walk, dance, read), and qualities (long, big, good) are easier to learn than words denoting abstract notions (world, home, believe, promise, honest). Structural words are the most diffi­cult for Russian-speaking pupils.

In teaching pupils a foreign language the teacher should bear this in mind when preparing for the vocabulary work during the lesson.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND LINGUISTIC FACTORS

WHICH DETERMINE THE PROCESS

OF TEACHING VOCABULARY

Words are elements of the language used in the act of com­munication. They are single units, and as such cannot provide the act of communication by themselves; they can provide it only when they are combined in a certain way. Sometimes separate words may be used in the act of communication, how­ever, for example:

—You have relatives, haven't you?

—Yes, a grandmother.

The word grandmother is used instead of the sentence pattern Yes, I have a grandmother.

Charles Fries says: "It is not the meaning of the words them­selves but an intricate system of formal features which makes possible the grasp of what we generally call 'meaning'. Train, boy, house, take — conveys no meaning. 'The boy takes a train to his house' is full of meaning." He concludes, "The meaning is not in the words themselves but in the words as a pattern".

N. I. Zhinkin writes: „Человек вообще никогда не говорит отдельные слова, если они в то же время не являются фра­зами. Никто ни с того ни с сего не скажет яблоко, паутина ¹¹ т. п. В разных ситуациях этими словами будут высказы­ваться разные сообщения и побуждения: вот яблоко, хочу яб­локо, где яблоко, не хочу яблока, это не яблоко и т. д.”

This idea was also emphasized by I. A. Gruzinskaya, a prominent Soviet methodologist. She wrote: „Слово живет и развивается только в целостном речевом комплексе, толь­ко в окружении других слов, во взаимоотношении с ними”.

Rule I for the teacher: While teaching pupils vocabu­lary, introduce words in sentence patterns in different situations of intercourse. Present the words in keeping with the structures to be taught.

Information is composed of two kinds of elements: simple (words) and complicated (sentences).

A word may be both a whole which consists of elements (speech sounds) and at the same time an element which is included in a whole (a sentence). In teaching words attention should be given both to a word as an element (in sentences) and a word as a whole (isolated unit) with the purpose of its analysis.

We fully agree with I. A.Gruzinskaya who writes: „При введении нового слова оно должно фигурировать сначала в предложении, а затем закрепляться в связанном контек­сте, в котором только и можно проследить многозначность слова. С изолированным словом мы будем иметь дело только после того, как оно воспринято в связном языковом целом, причем выделяем, изолируем мы слово только временно, для того чтобы фиксировать на нем внимание, объяснить его, опять поместить его в связное языковое окружение" .

Rule 2 for the teacher: Present the word as an element, i. е., in a sentence pattern first. Then fix it in the pupils' memory through different exercises in sentence patterns and phrase patterns.

Speech is taken in by ear and reproduced by the organs of speech.

„Есть все основания считать, что местом образования и накопления слов является речедвигатeльный анализатор. Слуховой анализатор лишь контролирует способ образова­ния слов, но не содержит их в себе. Только то слово может быть понято и узнано, которое уже образовано и двигатель­ные следы которого хранятся в двигательном анализаторе.

Незнакомое слово должно быть (под контролем слуха) пред­варительно усвоено речедвнгательным анализатором".'.

In teaching pupils vocabulary both the ear and the organs of speech should take an active part in the assimilation of words. Pupils should have ample practice in hearing words and pronouncing them not only as isolated units but in various sentences in which they occur.

Rule 3 for the teacher: While introducing a word pronounce it yourself in a context, ask pupils to pronounce it both individually and in unison in a context, too. Any word in the language has very complicated linguistic relations with other words in pronunciation, meaning, spell­ing, and usage.

Rule 4 for the teacher: In teaching words it is necessary to establish a memory bond between a new word and those already covered.

For instance: see — sea; too — two; one — won (in pronun­ciation); answer — reply; answer — ask; small — little (in meaning); bought — brought; caught — taught; night — right (in spelling); to fight somebody — бороться против кого-либо; to doubt something — сомневаться в чем-либо; to mention something — упоминать о чем-либо (similar word combina­tion).

The process of learning a word means to the pupil: (1) iden­tification of concepts, i. е., learning what the word means; (2) pupils activity for the purpose of retaining the word; (3) pupil's activity in using this word in the process of communi­cation in different situations.

Accordingly, the teacher's role in this process is:

(1)to furnish explanation, i. е., to present the word, to get his pupils to identify the concept correctly;

(2)to get them to recall or recognize the word by means of different exercises;

(3)to stimulate pupils to use the words in speech.

"The true art of teaching is not the application of the 'best' system, but the ability to stimulate pupils to worth while activity." (Morris, Teaching of English as a Second Lan­guage).

Sinсе there arc two stages in teaching vocabulary: presen­tation or explanation, retention or consolidation Which are based on certain psycholinguists actors.

HOW TO TEACH VOCABULARY IN SCHOOL

Presentation of new words. Since every word has its form, meaning, and usage lo present a word means to introduce to pupils his forms (phonetic, graphic, structural, and grammatical), and lo explain its meaning, and usages

The techniques of teaching pupils the pronunciation and spelling of a word are as follows: (1) pure or conscious imita­tion: (2) analogy; (3) transcription; (4) rules of reading.

Since a word consists of sounds if heard or spoken and letters if read or written the teacher shows the pupils how to pronounce, to read, and write it. However the approach may vary depending on the task set (the latter depends on the age of pupils, their progress in the language, the type of words, etc.). For example, if the teacher wants his pupils to learn the word orally first, he instructs them to recognize it when hearing and to articulate the word as an isolated element (a book) and in a sentence pattern or sentence patterns along­side with other words. (This is a book. Give me the book. Take the book. Put the book on the table, etc.)

As far as the form is concerned the pupils have but two difficulties to overcome: to learn how to pronounce the word both separately and in speech; and to recognize it in sentence patterns pronounced by the teacher, by his classmates, or by a speaker in case the tape recorder is used.

If the teacher wants his pupils to learn the word during the same lesson not only for hearing and speaking but for reading and writing as well, he shows them how to write and read it after they perform oral exercises and can recognize and pronounce the word. The teacher writes down the word on the blackboard (let it be spoon) and invites some pupils lo read it (they already know all the letters and the rule of reading ‘oo’. The pupils read the word and put it down in their note­books. In this case the pupils have two more difficulties to overcome: to learn how to write and how to read the word; the latter is connected with their ability lo associate letters with sounds in a proper way.

Later when pupils have learned the English alphabet and acquired some skills in spelling and reading they may be told to copy the new words into their exercise-books and read and write them independently; this work being done mainly as homework. The teacher then has his pupils perform various oral exercises during the lesson, he makes every pupil pronounce the new words in sentence patterns and use them in speech. Since this is the most difficult part of work in vocabulary assimilation it can and must be done during the lesson and under the teacher's supervision.

There are two methods of conveying the meaning of words: direct method and translation. The direct method of presenting the words of a foreign language brings the learner into direct con­tact with them, the mother tongue does not come in between, it establishes links between a foreign word and the thing or the concept directly. The direct method of conveying the mean­ing of foreign words is usually used when the words denote things, objects, their qualities, sometimes gestures and move­ments, which can be shown to and seen by pupils, for example: a book, a table, red, big, take, stand up, etc. The teacher should connect the English word he presents with the object, the notion it denotes directly, without the use of pupils' mother tongue.

There are various techniques for the use of the direct meth­od. It is possible to group them into (1) visual and (2) verbal. The first group involves the use of visual aids to convey the meaning of unfamiliar words. These may be: objects, or. pic­tures showing objects or situations; besides, the teacher may use movements and gestures. E. g., the teacher uses objects. He takes a pencil and looking at it says: a pencil. This is a pencil. What is this'.' It is a pencil. Is it a pencil? Yes, it is. Is it a pen? (The word is familiar to the pupils.) No, it is not. Is it a pen or a pencil? It is a pencil. The pupils do not only grasp the meaning of the word pencil, but they observe the use of the word in familiar sentence patterns.

One more example. The teacher uses pictures for present­ing the words small and big. He says: In this picture you can see two balls. (The balls should differ only in size.) This is a small ball, and that is a big ball. This ball is small, and that ball is big. Now, Sasha, come up to the picture and point to the small ball (the big ball).

Then the teacher shows another picture with two houses in it — a small house and a big house, and he asks another pupil to point to the small house, to the big house, and so on. The teacher may use gestures, for example, for conveying the meaning of stand up, sit down. He says: Lena, stand up. He shows with his hands what she must do. Lena stands up. Now, sit down. Again with the movement of his hands he shows the girl what she has to do. The other pupils listen to the teacher and watch what Lena is doing. Then many pupils are invited to perform the actions.

The second group of techniques involves the utilization of verbal means for conveying the meaning of unfamiliar words. These may be: context, synonyms, antonyms, defini­tions, word-building elements, etc. The context may serve as a key to convey the meaning of a new word.

Teacher: It was hot. We had nothing to drink. We were thirsty. Do people need water or bread when they are thirsty?

Pupil,: They need water. Teacher: What do people need when they are thirsty?

P u p i L: They need water (or something to drink). Teacher: It was hot. We had nothing to drink. We were thirsty. Were we thirsty?

P u p i I,: Yes, you were. Teacher: Were we thirsty or hungry? (The pupils

are familiar with the word hungry.)
P u p i 1,: You were thirsty.
Teacher: Why were we thirsty?
Pupil _s: You were thirsty because it was hot.
Teacher: Are you thirsty, Pete?
Pete: No, 1 am not.

Teacher; Who is thirsty?
Ann: I am.

Teacher: What did she say, Mike?
Mike: She said she was thirsty.

There is no need to turn to the mother tongue as pupils can grasp the meaning of the word thirsty from the context. Besides, while presenting the new word a conversation takes place between the teacher and the class, so they have practice in listening comprehension and speaking. The teacher may use a definition. Teacher: The new word is blind. A blind person is one who cannot see. Can a blind person see?

P u p i lj: No, he can't.

Teacher: What can't a blind person do — see or hear?

Pupil.: He can't see. Teacher: He can't sec because he is blind. Why can't

he see?

P u p i I₃: Because he is blind.

Thus, through a definition pupils get acquainted with the word blind and have an opportunity to observe its usage: a blind person, be blind. The mother tongue has not been used.

Now some examples of the use of the word-building ele­ments for conveying the meaning of words.

Teacher: You know the words: worker. teacher ...

Now guess the meaning of the word writer.

Write — writer. Name a writer you like, children.

Pupil: Tolstoy.

P u p i 1: Chekhov.

P u p i 1: Gorky. Teacher: That's right.

Teacher:Is Sholokhov a writer?

Pup i l: Yes, he is.

Teacher: Is Repin a writer?

P u p i l₅: No, he is not. Teacher: Is Kataev a writer or a teacher?

P u p i l„: He is a writer.

The pupils are familiar with the word teacher. The new word is leach.

The teacher asks the pupils to form a verb by dropping the ending -er; this work may be done on the blackboard: teacher — teach

Teacher: Who teaches you English?

Pupil: You do.

Teacher: Who teaches you geography?

Pupil.: Maria Ivanovna does.

Teacher: Docs M. V. teach you English or Russian?

P u p i 1: She teaches us Russian.

The teacher may also use synonyms to convey the meaning of a new word. For example, the word town may be presented through the familiar word city; receive — gel; reply — answer.

Teacher: You know the word city. Moscow is a city. What is Leningrad (Kiev, Minsk)?

Pupil1: Leningrad is a city.

P u p i 12.,: Kiev is a city.

P u p i 1₃: Minsk is a city.

Teacher: That's right: The new word is team. It is a synonym of city. Moscow is a city. Norilsk is not a city. Norilsk is a loam. So a town is smaller than a city. Name a town you like.

Pupil,: Zagorsk.

P u p i I..: Noginsk.

Teacher: That's right.

The pupils' answers to the teacher's questions testify to their comprehension of the word. So there is no need to turn to the pupils' mother tongue.

It is difficult to cover all the techniques the teacher may have at his disposal to convey the meaning of new words di­rectly without the help of the mother tongue. There are teach­ers, however, who do not admit that pupils can understand what a new word means without translating it into the native tongue, and though they use some techniques of the direct meth­od for conveying the meaning of new words, they immediately ask their pupils to say what is the Russian for...? Here are a few examples. Teacher N. presented the word ball in the fifth form. She had brought a ball. She showed the ball to the pupils and said: This is a ball ... a ball. The ball is red and blue. What is the Russian for 'n ball', children? Who can guess? Of course everyone could. They cried: мячик. What is the use of bringing the ball if the teacher turns to the mother tongue? So instead of developing pupils' abilities and skills in establishing asso­ciations between the English word and the object it denotes, she emphasized the necessity for the use of the mother tongue in learning the word. Then she presented the word football. She used a picture in which some boys were playing football. She said: Look at the picture, children. You can see some boys in /lie picture. They are playing football. What is the Russian for •football'? Who can guess! The pupils were not enthusiastic to answer this question because they probably found it silly. (It does not mean, of course, that the teacher cannot turn to the mother tongue to check pupils' comprehension when he uses the direct method of conveying the meaning of some difficult words not like those mentioned above — when he is not sure that everyone has understood them properly.) Con­sequently, the direct method works well provided that the teacher is good at applying visual aids and using verbal means when he explains new words to the pupils. Moreover, he must do it vividly to arouse his pupils' interest in the work per­formed, and thus to provide optimum conditions for understand­ing the meaning of the words and their assimilation through the foreign language. Besides various accessories (objects, pictures, movements, gestures, facial expressions, etc.) should be widely used. If the teacher cannot work with visual aids and is not an actor to a certain extent (after all, every teacher ought to be something of an actor), it is he, but not the method, who fails in conveying the meaning of new words.

The use of the direct method, however, is restricted. When­ever the teacher is to present words denoting abstract notions he must resort to the mother tongue, i. е., to translation.

The translation method may be applied in its two variants:

1. Common (proper) translation:

to sleep — спать flower — цветок joy — радость

2. Translation — interpretation:

to go — ехать, идти, лететь (движение от говорящего) to come — ехать, идти, лететь (движение к говорящему) to drive — вести (что?) машину, поезд, автобус, трамвай education — воспитание, образование afternoon — время с 12 ч. дня до С ч. вечера in the afternoon — днем

The translation method is efficient for presenting new words: it is economical from the point of view of time, it ensures the exact comprehension of the meaning of the words presented. As far as the stages of instruction are concerned, the methods of conveying the meaning of unfamiliar words should be used as follows:

visual presentation prevails in junior forms;

verbal means prevail in intermediate and senior forms;

translation in all the forms, especially in senior forms.

From psychology it is known that the process of perception is a complicated one; it includes various sensations and, at the same time, is closely connected with thinking and speech, with pupils' attention, their will, memory, and emotions. The more active the pupils are (luring the explanation of new words the better the results that can be achieved.

The choice of methods and techniques is a very important factor as it influences pupils' assimilation of words.

And, finally, pupils are recommended to get to know new words independently; they look them up in the word list or the dictionary. The teacher shows them how to consult first the vocabulary list at the end of the book, then the dictionary.

Once dictionaries have been brought into use the teacher should seldom explain a word, he should merely give examples of its use or use it (as if the class already knew it) in various speech patterns. This is the case at the senior level.

The choice of the method for conveying the meaning of a word depends on the following factors.

1. Psychological factors:

(1)pupils' age: the younger the pupils are the better is the chance for the use of the direct method;

(2)pupils' intelligence: the brighter the child the more direct the method.

2. Pedagogical factors:

(1)the stage of teaching (junior, intermediate, senior);

(2) the size of the class; in overcrowded classes the transla­tion method is preferable because it is economical from the standpoint of time required for presentation, so more time is left for pupils to do exercises in using the word;

(3) the time allotted to learning the new words; when the teacher is pressed for time he turns to the translation method;

(4) the qualifications of the teacher: the use of the direct method requires much skill on the part of the teacher.

The direct method is usually a success provided the teacher can skillfully apply audio-visual aids and verbal means.

3. Linguistic factors:

(1)abstract or concrete notions; for conveying the meaning of abstract notions the translation method is preferable;

(2)extent (range) of meaning in comparison with that of the Russian language; in cases where range of meaning of a word does not coincide in the mother tongue and in the tar­get language, the translation-interpretation should be used (e- g., education).

Whatever method of presenting a new word is used pupils should be able to pronounce the word correctly, listen to sentences with the word, repeat the word after the teacher indi­vidually and in unison both as a single unit and in sentences. However this is only the first step in approaching the word. Then comes the assimilation which is gained through perform­ing various exercises.

Retention of words. To attain the desired end pupils must first of all perform various exercises to fix the words in their memory.

Constant use of a new word is the best way of learn­ing it.

For this purpose it is necessary to organize pupils' work in a way permitting them to approach the new words from many different sides, in many different ways, by means of many different forms of work. The teacher can ensure lasting reten­tion of words for his pupils provided he relies upon pupils' sensory perception and thinking, upon their auditory, visual, and kinesthetic analysers so that pupils can easily recognize the words while hearing or reading, and use them while speak­ing or writing whenever they need. To use a word the pupil should, first, search for it in his memory, choose the very word he needs, and then insert the word in a sentence, i. е., use it properly to express his thought. Thus correct usage of words means the correct choice and insertion of the words in speech.

For this reason two groups of exercises may he recommended for vocabulary assimilation:

Group I. Exercises designed for developing pupils' skills in choosing the proper word.

Group II. Exercises designed to form pupils' skills in using the word in sentences.

Group 1 may include:

1. Exercises in finding the necessary words among those suggested. For example:

— Pick out the words (a) which denote school objects:

(1) a pen, (2) a cup, (3) a blackboard, (4) a desk, (5) a bed, (6) a picture, (7) a car (pupils are expected to take (1), (3), (4), (6); , or (b) which denote size:

(1) red, (2) big, (3) good, (4) small, (5) great, (6) green (pupils should take (2), (4), (5).

The horse is a (wild, domestic) animal. They (ale, drank) some water. The (sleep, fly) is an insect. The (rode, road) leads to Minsk.

— Arrange the words in pairs of the same root: usual, danger, development, usually, dangerous, develop (pupils are expected to arrange the words usual — usually, danger-dan­gerous...).

2. Exercises in finding the necessary words among those stored up in the pupils' memory. For example:

—Name the object the teacher shows (the teacher shows pupils a book, they say a book).

—Give it a name: (I) we use it when it rains; (2) it makes our tea sweet; (3) we sleep in it (pupils are expected to say an umbrella, sugar, a bed).

—Fill in the blanks: They saw a little hut in the forest.

The hut was .

—Say (or write) those words which (a) you need to speak about «inter, (b) refer to sports and games.

—Say (or write) the opposites of: remember, hot, day, get up, answer, tall, thick.

—Name the words with a similar meaning to: city, go, cold, reply (pupils should name town, walk, cool, answer).

—Make a list of objects one can see in the classroom.

—Say as many words as you can which denote size (colour or quality).

—Play a guessing game. The teacher, or one of the pupils, thinks of a word. Pupils try to guess the word by asking va­rious questions: Is it a ...? Is it big or small? Can we see it in the classroom?

It is next to impossible to give all (he exercises the teacher can use for developing pupils' skills in finding words both
among those suggested (when pupils just recognize the neces­sary words) and those stored up in their memory (when pupils "fish out" the words they need to do the exercise). There are plenty of them. Those mentioned, however, will be helpful
for consolidating and reviewing the vocabulary in eight- and ten-year schools.

Group II may include:

1. Exercises in inserting the necessary words in word combinations, phrases, sentences; the words and sentences being suggested.

For example:

Combine the words:

(a) sky fine (b) speak late rain blue run fast snow heavy come loudly weather white

(Pupils have to say (or to write): (a) blue sky, heavy rain, white snow, line weather: (b) speak loudly, run fast, come late.)

—Insert the words met; built; posted in (I) The house was... last year. (2) The delegation was... at the railway station in the morning. (3) 77ie letter was ... three days ago.

—Make statements with: a few days, a Jew words, a few people, a few friends, a few hours: e. g., We worked in the field for a few hours.

—Connect the sentences:

You must be careful because they had to complete

their work. He should slay at home because the traffic is heavy in

the street. They couldn't come in because he has caught cold time

(Pupils should join the sentences on the left with these on the right.)

2. Exercises in using word combinations, phrases, sen­tences stored up in pupils' memory in connection with situa­tions given. For example:

—Say what you can see here. (The teacher shows his pupils pens and pencils of different colour and size for them to say a blue pen, a long pencil, etc. Or he can use situational pictures for the purpose.)

—Say where the pen is. (The teacher puts the pen in dif­ferent places for pupils to say on the table, in the box, under the bag, over the blackboard, and so on.)

—Make statements. (The teacher either displays objects or uses pictures for pupils to say this is a blue pencil, it's rain­ing hard, the girl can't skate.)

—Make two (three) statements on the object (or the pic­ture). (The same objects or pictures may be used for the pur­pose.)

Exercises of this type are more difficult since pupils should search their memory for the necessary words, word combina­tions, or even sentences to describe an object or a picture.

3. Exercises which help pupils to acquire skills in using vocabulary in speech which may be stimulated by (a) visual materials; (b) verbal means; (c) audio-visual materials.

A few more words should be said about the use of audio­visual aids and materials in teaching vocabulary.

The teacher has great possibilities for pictorial and written representation oi words on the blackboard. He can use either printed pictures, or pictures drawn by himself or by the pupils for classroom teaching and, finally, pictures cut out of periodi­cals. He should use slides, film-strips, maps, plans, objects, etc.

All aids and materials (see Chapter IV) may be used in presenting, assimilating, and reviewing the vocabulary at every stage and in every form in teaching a foreign language

There are three problems the teacher is to deal with in vocabulary retention:

(1)the number of exercises to be used;

(2)the type of exercises to be used;

(3)the sequence or the order of complexity in which the selected exercises should be done.

In solving these problems the teacher should take into con­sideration:

—The aim of leaching a word. Do pupils need it for speak­ing or only for reading? If it is a word designed for speaking then it should go through most of the exercises mentioned above. If it is a word designed for reading only then it is not necessary to use exercises for developing pupils' skills in using the words in oral language.

—The nature of the word. There are English words which are difficult for Russian-speaking students. To master these words pupils should do a great number of exercises which require the use of the words in speaking.

The desirable relationship between these two groups of exercises, as our experiments have proved, should be in the ratio I : 2, that is most of the exercises must be connected with developing pupils' skills in using the words in sentences and in connection with the situations offered.

At both stages of teaching vocabulary the teacher should constantly use all kinds of vocabulary testing to see how his pupils assimilate the form, the meaning, and the usage of the words. For testing the retention of the written form dictations may be suggested. For testing the meaning special tests may be recommended such as writing synonyms, antonyms, derivatives, identification, and some others. For testing the usage of the words the teacher may administer such tests as compos­ing sentences using the words given, composing a story on a picture or a set of pictures, and some others. The teacher should bear in mind that most of the exercises offered for the stages of presentation and retention may be fruitfully utilized for vocabulary testing.

Recommended Literature:

Программы средней школы. Иностранные языки (Лексика).

Questions for Discussion:

1.Speak on the principles of selecting a minimum vocabulary. What, in your opinion, is the soundest criterion?

2.Comment on the main rules in teaching vocabulary.

3.Speak on the possible difficulties a pupil has to overcome when new words arc presented. What is the role of the teacher here? Illustrate your answer with several examples.

4.Not all words require the same exercises for retention. Why?

Activities:

1.Prepare a lesson plan for leaching words of different types at the stage of presentation. Use any Pupil's Book you like.

2.Make up a drill on the words presented.

3.Prepare a series of situations to stimulate pupils to use the words presented. Use two forms of speech: dialogue and monologue.

4.Prepare a test on vocabulary (a) for oral testing, (b) for written testing.