Brief Review on Foreign Language Teaching

INTRODUCTION

A student who starts studying Methods will be puzzled by the variety of "methods" he may come across in books and journals and, of course, there are good grounds for this. At different periods, depending on the aims of teaching and learning a foreign language, new methods sprang up. In each case the method received a certain name; sometimes its name denoted logical categories, for example; the synthet­ic method (synthesis), the analytic method (analysis), the deductive method (deduction), the inductive method (induction), ' sometimes the method was named after the aspect of the language upon which attention was focused as in the cases of the grammar method, the lexical method, the phonetic method. A third set of methods received their names from the skill which was the main object of teaching, Among these are the translation method (translation), the oral method (oral language). Sometimes the method got its name from the psychology of language learning; in this category the following names occur: the intuitive method, the conscious method, the direct method. Finally, the meth­od was sometimes named after its inventor. Thus we find: the Amos Comensky method, the Jacotot method, the Gonin method, the Berlitz method, the Palmer (West, Fries) method.

In some cases the methods bear coupled names: they represent two sides of teaching, for example, the leading aspect of the language and the skill the pupils acquire (the grammar-translation method), or (he name of the author and the language activity which is the main aim in teaching — 'Fries oral method", ."the method of teaching reading by West", We may find even such names as "hear-say-see-say-read-write method" and others.

It would be impracticable in a short chapter such as this one to give a classification of methods. All that one can hope lo do is to select for comment those methods which have had a long history and have influenced the contemporary meth­ods of foreign language teaching, and live on in them. This brief review will deal with:

(1)the grammar-translation method, the oldest method of teaching foreign languages which had its origin in Latin schools;

(2)the direct method which began to be widely used in schools in the 1870's;

(U) contemporary methods.

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The grammar-translation method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin, and it was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when they were intro­duced into schools, first as an optional and then as a compul­sory subject. In teaching a foreign language by means of the grammar-translation method attention was paid lo the assimilation of grammar rules of the foreign language that pupils studied. The vocabulary was "tuned up" to grammar. Translation was extensively utilized both as a means of explanation of new words, grammar forms, and structures, and as a means of mastering (he foreign language, all exer­cises for assimilating the language material being limited to translation from the mother tongue into The foreign lan­guage and from the foreign language into the mother tongue.

The distinguishing features of the grammar-translation method are (1) insistence upon grammatical analyses and (2) the assumption that grammatical categories can be de­fined in general terms with reference to meaning, the gram­matical categories being the common denominator of all languages. According to the grammar-translation method the best way lo say a sentence in a foreign language is to start with a sentence in The mother tongue, analyze it gram­matically into such components as subject, i. е., one who performs the action, predicate, that which denotes the ac­tion, object, that which receives the action, etc. Ii neces­sary pupils go on with the analyses, for example, the tense, mood, etc. Then the pupil is told to find the corresponding forms in the foreign language. Sounds, mor­phemes, words are always considered peculiar to one language alone, but the syntax, the patterns of language are thought of as universal that will allow the pupil to pass from one lan­guage to another. It is well known that many patterns of a foreign language do not conform to those of the native lan­guage, and these contrasting patterns have to be learned as •exceptions", i. е., exceptions of the one language from the stand point of the other language.

The grammar-translation method in its orthodox form was practised in schools in the 18th and 19th centuries. The development of pedagogics, psychology and linguistics brought changes in the grammar-translation method. It was greatly modified at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century, and, first of all, these modifications dealt with the approach to the relationship of "two grammars". Instead of forcing the target language into the mold of the learner's native language, the "grammars" are compared with the result of better comprehension and retention in all points of difference and interference.

The grammar-translation method is often mentioned even nowadays when one wants to emphasize a traditional ap­proach "to foreign language teaching. The textbook is the essential teaching aid. The assumption is that proficiency in the language can be acquired by learning a set of grammat­ical rules, to which the language is supposed to conform, and that by mechanically applying these rules speed and fluency will grow with the use of the language. Primary objectives are mastery of the graphic skills, i. е., reading and writing, with secondary attention to hearing and speaking. Language performance in the classroom takes the form of reading, translating, and the working out of various exer­cises which require the application of grammar rules to se­lected data.

THE DIRECT METHOD

The direct method appeared as a reaction against the grammar-translation method. The prerequisites that brought about the appearance of new method are as follows. The rapid development of vari­ous branches of industry and the tremendous development of international trade and colonial expansion required plenty of officials who had a practical mastery of the language, people who could speak and write a foreign language and be able to communicate with foreigners. Therefore practical mastery of a foreign language becomes the main purpose of leaching this subject at school. The rapid development of pedagogics, psychology, namely, perceptive psychology, and linguistics promoted the appearance of new methods. ' The characteristic features of the direct method are as follows:

(1)the practical direction in the teaching of foreign lan­guages which is understood as teaching language skills and speaking in particular, therefore spoken language becomes the basis of teaching;

(2)the ignoring of the existence of the mother tongue as it is assumed that learning the mother tongue and learning a foreign language are similar processes, merely undertaken at different ages;

(3)restricted application or very often complete elimina­tion of translation as a means of teaching a language which plays a leading part in the grammar-translation method; instead of translation, visual aids and various oral and writ­ten exercises are recommended on a large scale;

(4)the inductive approach to teaching grammar, i. е., the learner may discover the rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many examples (in the grammar-translation method the rule is first stated, and then sentences embodying the rule are studied; later the rule is put into practice by writing new sentences, generally by translating sentences from the mother tongue into the foreign language);

(5)great care in teaching pronunciation throughout the course, and especially the first weeks and months; correct pronunciation must be constantly practised since comprehen­sion and speaking is possible if the learner has adequate pronunciation in the target language;

(6)great attention to the subjects of the texts, especially a topical arrangement of the material with the purpose of ensuring speech development.

The method is called direct because in teaching a foreign language the attempt is made to establish a direct connection between a foreign word and the tiling or notion it denotes without the aid of the native language.

At the end of the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th century there appeared several varieties of the direct method which differed only in some details. The most orthodox advo­cates of the direct method were 1". Gonin, M. Berlitz, M. Wal­ter, B. Eggert.'

The teachers who accepted the method, involve the pupil from the first step of learning a new language in conversation and supply meaning by referring directly to objects and pic­ture charts; they act out the meaning of sentences in order to make themselves understood.

The direct method found ready supporters. It stimulated enormously the pupil's curiosity to learn and make progress. But there were too many difficulties in the use of the method, the main of them being the following:

1.No scientific principles were applied to selection of study material and vocabulary in particular. The only prin­ciple applied was the topical one, i. е., the material was ar­ranged in topics. As a result of such arrangement of vocabu­lary, the pupil had to assimilate a great number of words. For example, in textbooks compiled according to F. Gonin system the vocabulary listed 8 000 words.

2.School conditions did not favour the development of pupils' speech habits (too few periods a week, overcrowded classes, lack of visual materials, etc.).

3.In the hands of inexperienced and ill-equipped teachers the direct method did not work and the teachers had to return to the old grammar-translation method.

However during the period between the two wars it became possible to revive the main principles of the direct method: (a) by careful experimentation; (b) by taking note of the new developments in the field of linguistics (Ferdinand de Saus-sure)² and psychology (Thorndike)³; (c) by insisting that clear statements be made as to the aims and objectives of teaching.

¹ See: Рахманов И. В. Очерки по истории методики .преподавания новых западноевропейских иностранных языков. М., 1947, с. 84—109.

³ Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1915), a distinguished Swiss professor of Sanskrit at Geneva.

Thorndike Edward Lee (1874—1949). an American psychologist, professor, author of The Psychology of Learning (1914), The Measurement of Intelligence (1926), etc.

This was done by H. Palmer and M. West, prominent Eng­lish methodologists.

The main points in Palmers method are: 1 In learning a foreign language the pupil must tread the path he has followed in acquiring the mother tongue, i. е., starling with oral language.

2.The teaching of a foreign language must be based upon carefully selected material. H. Palmer was one of the first methodologists who tried to work out the principles of vo­cabulary selection on a scientific basis. A special Research Institute was established in Tokyo and H. Palmer headed this Institute. The results of the work was a 3 000 word mi­nimum vocabulary list.

3.Great attention should be given to the rationalization of study material to make the assimilation of a foreign lan­guage easier.

H. Palmer compiles a series of study guides for teaching oral language:

English Through Actions — where a system of exercise drills based upon the concrete showing of things and actions is given.

100 Substitution Tables — in which typical English sen­tences (sentence patterns) are arranged in tables for pupils to make up their own sentences, following the pattern. Since Substitution Tables is one of the innovations introduced by H. Palmer and they are widely used in contemporary methods, it is relevant to mention what such tables allow the learner to do while using them:

1.To present the most frequently used English words and word groups in such a manner as to form the greatest number of useful sentences of general application.

2.To serve as practical car-training exercises, by the use of which the student will come to understand the most rapid speech.

3.To serve as a series of pronunciation exercises, by the use of which the student will acquire fluency and rapidity of expression with the appropriate stress and' intonation.

4.To provide a simple context for each word in such a way as to encourage the student to learn words not as isolated elements but as component parts of sentences.

6.o. lo serve as a simple scheme for analysis in which the function о the various parts of speech and the nature of group-words arc clearly shown. To offer an extensive choice of model sentences to be memorized providing a simple means for converting each memorized sentence into a vast number of others.

7.To enable the teacher to react against five of the ten vicious evils, to which most of all language students are sub­ject, namely:

(a)literal translation from the mother tongue,

(b)artificial separation of words,

(c)non-recognition of group-words,

(d)preference for strong forms,

(c) over-reliance on visual memory.

8.To form the basis of a series of progressive exercises in the grammar inflexions and semantics of spoken English.

9.To serve as vocabulary and phrase-book, to be used with a key in the mother tongue for those who find it necessary or more convenient to study without a teacher. This books can be used.

Systematic Exercises in English Pronunciation. In this book a graded system of exercises in pronunciation is presented.

Standard English Reader contains easy material which gradually becomes more complicated and interesting to read. The material is based on selected vocabulary.

English Through Questions and Answers is attached to these readers.

The books present a gradual transition from simple lo complex questions on every text. Later on the books Graded Exercises in English Composition are added. These books con­tain various grammar and vocabulary exercises on each text of the Standard Readers.

Teaching is a long chain of stimuli applied by the teacher and a response chain of students' reactions. In learning a for­eign language the students pass through the following stages.

I. Receptive work when the students only assimilate the teacher's speech:

(a) Subconscious comprehension. The teacher speaks. The
students listen to his speech. There is no reaction on the part
of the learners. They are plunged into a sea of foreign lan­guage sounds.

For example, the teacher speaks pointing to objects and moving about the classroom.

This is a book and that is a box. — Look at (the book. Look at the box. —- I am going to put the book on the table and the box on the chair. — Where's the book now? —It's on the table. — And the box? —It's on the chair. Is the book on the table? — Yes, it is. Is the book on the chair? — No, it isn't. The box is on the chair. — Now look at me; I am going to open the book and to open the box. — There! The book's open and so is the box. Now I am going to open the door. — Etc., etc. '

(b)Conscious comprehension. The teacher speaks; the pu­pils are given a definite assignment, for example, "Pay attention to intonation".

(c)Exercises in fulfilment of instructions. The teacher orders a pupil to do something. The pupil does it silently. In this way he shows that he has understood the teacher's order or request in the English language.

Get up. Sit down. Get up. Come here. Go there. — over there. — to the door. — to the window. — to the blackboard. — to the table. Go back to your place. Sit down.

At first the teacher accompanies his verbal command by gestures. Then he stops the gestures so that the pupil reacts without visual props.

The teacher asks a question, inc students answer "yes", or "no". In this way the students' comprehension is checked.

In all the exercises mentioned above comprehension is en­sured by vivid and visual presentation of the material by the teacher, by his demonstration where necessary of the actions required, and by arranging the pupil's activity in using material,

2. Receptive-imitative work. The teacher speaks. The students repeat certain speech units after him.
(Parrot work, as H. Palmer calls it). These may be:

(a)exercises in repetition of separate sounds and sound combinations;

(b)exercises in repetition of words and sentences;

(c)simple substitution tables. The teacher does his best to create conditions in which the students will not make mistakes in their speech.

3. Conventional conversation. The stu­dents learn how to ask and answer questions of the following three types: general, alternative and special. For better as­
stimulation of the material, teaching is conducted in con­secutive order, i. е., they are taught how to ask questions of one type at a time. Finally, questions are asked at random.

For example: What can I do if I have a pen? knife? piece of chalk? etc.

4. Normal conversation. The teacher and the pupils carry on a conversation in the foreign language.

Palmer distinguishes lour stages in teaching and learning a foreign language: elementary, intermediate, advanced, and subsequent life, as H. Palmer says: "Learning a language has a beginning, but no end." H. Palmer gives much attention to methods of leaching in the first two stages. He says: "Take care of the initial stage, and the rest will take care of them/ selves."

Since, in his opinion, it is necessary lo begin by teaching oral language. he works out most carefully the methods and techniques of teaching this aspect of speech activity.

In contrast to H. Palmer, M. West proposes to begin by teaching to read. In support of such a sequence in foreign language teaching: from reading — reception, to speaking — reproduction, M. West advances the following arguments:

( Palmer II. The Oral Method of Teaching Languages. Cambridge, 1921, p. 69.)

1. In a country where the child must be bilingual and be brought into easy contact with world culture it is necessary to begin by teaching to read. The essential need of the aver­age bilingual child of a minor language is simply that of reading ability in one of the major languages to supply the informational and scientific deficiency of his national lit­erature.

2. Reading is the easiest aspect of the language to ac­quire, for reading involves no active use of grammar and idi­oms and the memory of the vocabulary is merely recognition. M. West says it is necessary to begin with reading because "We need not begin by teaching the child to speak for that would be to teach something easy by means of something more difficult."

3. In teaching reading it is easier to develop a sense of the language and a feeling of what is idiomatic which would very greatly diminish the child's liability to errors and very greatly accelerate his progress.

4. In learning reading the child will sooner feel his prog­ress in language knowledge and enjoy it. Besides, he can improve his knowledge independently without the teacher's aid.

5. In teaching reading the teacher's qualifications, and his command of the language is of no great importance (as the reading book teaches the child while the teacher is a mere master of ceremonies), nor is the size of the class of sig­nificance, as all the pupils can read simultaneously. M. West compiled a series of teaching material for teaching reading: ten readers, supplementary readers, exercise books, and blank companions.

He has developed methods of teaching oral language and compiled special leaching material for the purpose. These are: Learn lo Speak by Speaking. Improve Your English, Easy English Dialogues, Book One and Book Two. His book Teach­ing English in Difficult Circumstances was translated into Russian.³

e greatly appreciate H. Palmer and M. West for their contribution to Methods. These English methodologists have enriched the technology of foreign language teaching:

1.They have raised the problem of careful selection of language material, worked out criteria of selection, and se­lected the material.

2.They have raised the problem of the necessity for rationalizing teaching materials and worked out systems of foreign language teaching: H. Palmer — speaking, M. West — both reading and speaking.

3.They have compiled series of guide books: H. Palmer for teaching speaking; M. West for teaching reading and speaking.

4.They have introduced a lot of new and effective exer­cises: H. Palmer for the development of speaking skills, M, West for the development of reading skills and compre­hension of a foreign text as well as for the development of speaking.

CONTEMPORARY METHODS of 80 th.

All the points mentioned above are undergoing further development in contemporary Methods abroad.

There are many methods of language teaching and a con­siderable amount of controversy as to the best way of for­eign languages teaching abroad at present. However it is possible to group them into (1) traditional methods which have their origin in the grammar-translation method, and (2) audio-lingual methods which are considered to be a fur­ther development of the direct method line.

The traditional approach to foreign language teaching is characterized by (1) the use of the native language for expla­nation, retention and checking; (2) the deductive explanation of grammar and the use of grammar exercises; (3) the develop­ment of all the language skills, i. е., hearing, speaking, reading, and writing from the beginning of the course. This approach is called traditional because it has been prevalent in schools for a long time. The traditional methods,

¹ It does not moan, of course, that there have been only these two methodologists who have contributed to the theory and practice of foreign language teaching in the direct method line. The choice bears rather a subjective than an objective character. H. Palmer and M. West have proposed complete systems of teaching English as a foreign language, and it is this language which is taught in the majority of schools in the Soviet Union. Besides, some of their books are available for students and teachers of English as they have been published in our country although they are adopting some kinds of innovation in teaching techniques and teaching materials, still retain those distinguishing characteristics which were mentioned above. Since these methods are often contrasted with audiо - lingual methods, and the latter are considered to be contemporary ones, we shall dwell upon the audio-lingual methods more thoroughly.

The main features of the contemporary methods are:

1.The development of audio-lingual skill first, i.e., listening comprehension and speaking, that is why the meth­ods are called audio-lingual. The justification of the pri­ority of spoken language in foreign language learning is found in the observation that a language is first of all a sys­tem of sounds used for social communication; writing is a secondary derivative system people use for the recording of spoken language. Children normally learn spoken language before they learn written language. Even if the learner's aim is only to read or write the language he can attain a surer mastery of the foreign language if he passes through a sub­stantial stage of work with the spoken language. It is thought that reading and writing might, at least in the begin­ning, interfere with the development of audio-lingual skills, and that especially the use of writing may lead to spelling pronunciation. The amount of delay between presentation of the spoken and the written material may vary from a short time to a very long time which depends on the aim of teach­ing, the student's age, the organization of the course, the conditions of instruction, etc.

2.Great care in teaching speaking so that the learner could use the spoken forms as accurately as possible, that is, with native-like sentence patterns and pronunciation. For this purpose the student should have some adequate model of speech — preferably in the person of a native or near-native speaker of the language, or in the form of a faithfully recorded voice of such a speaker. This is now becoming pos­sible because of modern teaching equipment such as radio, television, language laboratories, and teaching machines.

The rejection of translation as the main tool of in­duction. Ail the exercises performed by the student are in the target language. The use of the student's native language is minimized. It is admitted to supply mean­ing to the student, although, even in this case the target language supported by whatever props, pictorial materials, or pantomimic gestures, is preferred.

I. Teaching grammar through pattern practice. The gram­matical exercises usually take the form of drills in which the student is asked to substitute words for other words, or to make changes in sentences, e. g., from singular to plu­ral, from past to present, from active to passive, following the model. Grammatical descriptions of patterns are taught only after the patterns are well on the way to being mas­tered at a purely oral level, and then only when it is felt that such descriptions will hasten the learning process or help ensure retention. Pattern practice with varying elements provides drill in the conscious application of structural ele­ments and leads the student to the "automatic" use of the structural patterns. Such an approach to teaching grammar is justified on the basis of theories and observations as to how children learn their mother tongue, and how they use well-practised patterns of their native language.

5.Extensive use of "real-life" communication situations for stimulating the student's language activity. This is done to involve the student in the act of communication in the target language, and in this way to arouse his interest in language learning and increase his motivation. Modern teach­ing aids and teaching materials make such situations acces­sible, e. g., a filmstrip with foreign language sound track can represent realistic situations and context and "engage" the student in conversations,

6.The development of reading and writing first using the linguistic material the student has learned orally, and then the material characteristic of written language with the aim of getting information (reading) and sending information (writing).

These features of contemporary methods may be illus­trated by “Voix et images de France “ („Голос и образ Франции”) and Fries' American English Series.

“Voix et images de France” is a French course which has been worked out by the Research Centre in Saint Cloud in France. The method is known as the Saint Cloud audio-visual method. The situations and speech patterns have been carefully selected. All these are reproduced by native speakers. Students "receive" the material through audio and visual perception, i е., they see a picture (a series of pictures) on a screen or in the book and listen to the conversation from a tape-re­corder. They assimilate the material by memorizing the lan­guage and the situations in which this material can be used. The work takes the student through the following stages: (1) г е с е р t i v e stage: the student listens to the con­versation 2—3 times and tries to grasp it; (2) reproduc­tive stage: the student reproduces the phrases and sentences said by the speakers. Typically the material mem­orized consists of dialogues that the student can act out. The whole course includes a lot of conversations within a set of everyday situations. Students are taught reading and writing after they have acquired habits and skills in 'hearing and speaking. The method is popular with foreigners who come to France. ' The course has been created for adult learn­ers. It is an intensive course, i. е., students learn a foreign language for 3—6 months 20—25 hours a week, therefore it cannot be utilized in schools.

Fries' American English Series is a course of English as a foreign language. The material, carefully selected for easy assimilation, is distributed throughout the six textbooks. Each book is supplied with a guide book for teachers. There are many interesting exercises of a creative character which contrast favourably with H. Palmer's exercises. Palmer's exercises are known to be mechanical and they require "par­rot work" on the part of the learner. Here are some of the exer­cises from Book One and Book Two which pupils can do after they have learned the material orally.

—Draw a picture of an animal. Colour it and write two statements about it.

—Write statements. Tell five things you do every day, and five things you did yesterday.

—Make statements about the objects that your teacher shows you.

— Plan a lunch for one day of the week.
-Write a paragraph on the blackboard about one of the pupils in your class. Write two paragraphs about yourself.

—Write a paragraph about one of these pictures
(3 pictures arc displayed).

Play a guessing game with your teacher.

—Write a sentence about five people you know.

—Tell the class what you, some members of your family or a friend did yesterday morning, yesterday afternoon and last night.

—Guess what pupils in your class were doing at a certain time.

Charles Fries called his method "the oral approach" be­cause pupils get acquainted with language material "through the ear".

He wrote, "... no matter ii the final desire is only to read the foreign language, the mastery of the fundamentals of the language — the structure and the sound system with a limited vocabulary — must be through speech. Speech is the lan­guage. The written record is but a secondary representation of the language."¹ In the oral approach reading is deliberately postponed until the structure of the new language is firmly grasped. The language of the pupil is avoided as much as possible; it is admitted when necessary, to make sure that explanations are thoroughly understood. Fries emphasizes that "in teaching by 'the oral approach' there should be wide­ly used every means which can be made to contribute to learning a language: the living voice, mechanical records, sound films, manuals, textbooks, written notes, written exercises." However "the oral approach" centres attention upon learning a language as a set of symbols to be spoken and understood when heard, i. е., upon oral language.

There are quite a number of prominent methodologists -who have contributed to foreign language teaching, and English in particular. Some of the most interesting articles and chapters from well-known books have been translated into Russian and published under the title „Методика пре­подавания иностранных языков за рубежом". Сост. М. М. Ваcильева, Е. В. Синявская. М.. 1967.

In conclusion, it should be said that between the grammar-translation method however modified and the direct method in various modifications there have been mixed or in-be­tween methods. The advocates of the latter methods try to avoid the extremes of the former. "Language Learn­ing" by Peter Hagboldt is an example of such a method.'

It is not our purpose here to analyze teaching methods and weigh their relative merits since this may be a subject for special papers and investigations. Besides there is a spe­cial book in which all these methods are thoroughly dis­cussed.

We have only introduced teaching methods to those who are going to become teachers of foreign languages, or already teach them in schools, so that they might learn their main characteristics and could read articles and books on foreign language teaching in the English language.

The chief tendency in the development of Methods abroad may be characterized by a scientific approach to the teaching of foreign languages, extensive use of linguistic science, psy­chology, psycholinguistics, and experimenting. The progress made in the sphere of phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar study has shed fresh light on the content of teaching, i. c., on what to teach, what linguistic material should be used for developing audio-lingual skills and written language (read­ing and writing). Different approaches are followed in the selection of linguistic material for teaching speaking. Recorded speech should be analyzed with the aim of selecting those language units which are characteristic of spoken language and are necessary to cover the most frequently used situations; ' for the latter, printed texts are analyzed and the occurrences of words, phraseologic­al units, and grammatical structures are counted in order to select those which the learner needs to read foreign texts.

The practical application of some theoretical views of American descriptive structural linguists and psychologists. such as the primacy of the spoken over the written language, has led to the oral approach to foreign language teaching; the treatment of language as a complex of habits and skills, as a form of social behaviour, has been realized in teaching a foreign language as behaviour, i. е., a reaction of the organ­ism as a whole to a social environment. The learner should know what a native speaker's response would be in a cer­tain situation.

In his article Learning English as Behaviour¹ M. West gives the following examples of wrong and right responses:

Wrong Right

What's this? This is a book. What's this? It's a book.

Where is the book? The book Where is the book? It's on
is on the table. the table {or: On the

table.)

How many books are there on How many books are there on
the table? There are three the table? There are

books on the table. three, (or: Three.)

He says that those who merely learn the language as a form of verbal expression cannot gain an understanding of for­eign people. In order to understand the English it is not enough to know what they speak but how they speak, or rather how they converse. In a behavioural method of teaching it is necessary to combine a correct and systematic build-up of linguistic elements (structures and carefully selected vo­cabulary) and a vital and behavioural use of the language. This is possible provided real and close-to-real situations are created. So situational approach in foreign language teaching is essential, "Ideally one needs television or a film so that the pupil may not merely hear how the English language is behaved but see it behaved as well."

The behaviouristic stimulus-response and reinforcement theory in psychology adopted by foreign language teaching has resulted in repetitive drill of certain patterns of language or in pattern practice; for this purpose language laboratories, programmed instruction, and other innovations have been offered. However, this has not brought the results which were promised and expected. Here is what American methodologists write on the point, "The 'New Look' proposed by theoretical linguists in the I950's, the audio-lingual method, has not lived up to expectations, the NDEA institutes [ailed to stimulate major improvements in language learning, the language laboratories have not become efficient repla­cements for live teachers, and, as a result, a great many stu­dents — and an increasing number of administrators — are actively questioning the relevance of foreign language in modern education. ... the opposition to the school learning of foreign languages is being generated by the failure to make language programs a meaningful, satisfactory, and success­ful learning experience."³

In the past few years the stimulus response theory (as applied to education) has begun to be strongly criticized by psychologists and by the teachers and students themselves. ⁴ As a consequence of this criticism the cognitive code-learning theory has been proposed. According to the cognitive code-theory a language is more than a system of habits which can be formed through repetitive drill. It is a specific system and the learner should know how this system works in actual communication. Cognitive processes imply recognition of form, perception of meaning, relations of universal and particulars generalization, and analogization. Since the cognitive code-learning approach is characterized by these of exercises designed to teach grammatical understanding of the concepts being introduced; by the deductive expla­nation of all grammar prior to any practice with the struc­ture; and by the practice of all the language skills from the beginning of the course, ' it is considered a more modern and sophisticated version of the grammar-translation method. The results of scientific analysis of the contrasts between the learner's language and the target language are taken into consideration in the arrangement of the material and the pu­pil's activity for its retention, because the typical learner's difficulties can he identified and predicted in advance on the basis of contrastive analysis in phonology, structure, seman­tics, and culture.

The development of engineering has made possible the in­troducing of new teaching aids and teaching materials: tele­vision courses, tape lessons, audio-visual courses; pro­grammed instruction is being introduced into foreign language teaching. Textbooks have appeared which differ greatly from those used before; each new textbook is only a part of the teaching materials designed for a particular set of pupils.

Considerable attention is given to testing in foreign lan­guage teaching, to measuring pupils' aptitudes and achieve­ments in language learning. * Various tests have been sug­gested for measuring pupils' knowledge of vocabulary and structures, their comprehension of oral language and written language. Most of them are very primitive and inadequate. The problem of testing, because of the complexity of the subject, is still far from being solved.

There is a tendency towards more intensive language teach­ing since the requirement for people who can use a foreign language as a means of communication is increasing from year to year. To prove this we shall quote words which sound like a motto "more people, more often and more speedily"

In this connection various intensive courses (in which the total number of hours of instruction is concentrated within a short period of time, for instance, 10, 20 or 30 hours per week instead of four or five) are suggested. The idea of great­er intensity of teaching than is usually accepted has been borne out as a result of experimenting at various centres. The Intensive Course is an example. ' The Intermediate Course, for instance, provides material designed for approx­imately four weeks of intensive study. It is recommended that each study unit be used for four to six hours of com­bined classroom and language laboratory work. The course consists of thirty lessons. They are of three types: lessons that introduce new reading and dialogue materials; lessons that provide dialogue practice, as well as intonation, pro­nunciation, and grammar drill; and two review lessons. All the materials except those marked Classroom Practice and Homework are recorded on tape.

In conclusion, we may say that much effort is being ex­pended on the development of more effective methods of foreign language teaching and, although practical results are not yet encouraging, as one can judge from different publications on. Methods, one can hope that a scientific approach to foreign language leaching will bring consid­erable improvement.

SOVIET METHOD OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

A scientific approach to foreign language teaching has always been followed in the Soviet Union. Every pupil has to learn a foreign language and acquire habits arid skills in using it. Since then intensive research work has been carried out in this field. As a result our schools have received new courses adjusted to the needs of Soviet schooling; various text­books and books on the improvement of teaching methods have been published.

Further development of foreign language teaching has been encouraged by the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On" Improving Foreign Language Learning" adopted in 1961. This gave rise to extensive research, work with the emphasis on experimentation. The result is new textbooks and a whole series of supplementary leaching materials now in use in schools. These are the main feature. of the method which we believe may be recommended for the teaching of foreign languages in schools:

1.The aims of our teaching are practical, educational and cultural. The teaching of a foreign language must first and foremost lead pupils to practical mastery of it. There are four abilities to train: hearing, speaking, reading, writing with understanding as the main ingredient in each. This indicates that the teacher's chief concern should not be only over difficulties of pronunciation, the growth of vocabulary or grammar, but over language abilities, that is, over getting pupils' language abilities into action. The learning of an; new language can add to the pupil's mental equipment, sharpen his wits and develop his intelligence. Foreign language teach­ing in schools should also contribute to the pupil's general development.

The method is based upon a scientific approach to the determination of the content of teaching. This implies careful selection of linguistic material, a clear idea of the desire" result in terms of the habits and skills that should be ac­quired by pupils; in other word, the exact knowledge of what one expects to achieve at every stage of instruction.

3. The method is guided by the following principles:

(a)oral language is (he principal means of leaching a foreign language to achieve any objective the teacher sets'

(b)the method is based on the following sequence of lan­guage activities: pupils assimilate the material orally before they read and write it;

(c)active teaching techniques are widely used: visual, audio and audio-visual aids, teaching materials for stimulat­ing the pupil's speech activities;

(d)a special emphasis is laid on a definite sequence in forming language skills:

—getting information about a language unit;

—various drill exercises within the target language suffi­cient for fixing the material in pupils' memory and forming habits in using it;

—a large number of creative exercises for the pupils to participate actively in the process of communication;

(e) the method strives for the constant increase of active time for each pupil to practice in hearing, speaking, reading, and writing.

All this should find its reflection in a sequence of lessons as well as in each separate lesson. It should also be applied to work after classes (extra-curricular work and optional course).

Since the distinguishing features of the method are (1) a conscious approach to language learning, and (2) the acquisi­tion of the language through pupils' practice in using it, we may accept the name offered by B. V. Belyaev, the conscious-practical (сознательно-практический), to emphasize the path followed in the acquisition of the language skills from con­scious approach to automatic)'. Such an approach to foreign language teaching is psychologically sound and fully justified as has been proved by numerous investigations and experiments earned out by Soviet methodologists.

It is the teacher who teaches pupils a foreign lan­guage, few words should be said about his work. Teaching a foreign language is hard work. But hard work early always bring success when a teacher does his best to make his pupils do the work.' P. Gurrey is right when .,, says that few people realize what an unceasing expenditure of thought and energy is essential for teaching this subject. Indeed, a foreign language teaching requires so much mental and physical activity because of the complexity of language learning. On the one hand, the teacher must provide i pupils with the knowledge of different aspects of the language (phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary), on the other hand, he should equip them with habits and skills in hearing (listening comprehension), speaking, reading, and writing. The teacher of a foreign language needs: (1) a good command of the language he teaches, and a sufficient knowledge of its phonic, graphic, grammar systems and vocabulary; (2) knowledge of pedagogics and psychology; the nature of the learner and the nature of teaching and learning processes; (3) a knowledge of teaching methods and techniques, the best and most effective ones to use; an understanding of the pur­pose and aim of each method and device he uses; (4) confidence and skill in his handling of teaching techniques.

This will allow the teacher to find the right approach to each particular situation and, therefore, to be really profi­cient.

SECOND-LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS
Principles & Procedures