Present Simple (Present Indefinite) 11
Present Continuous 12
Present Simple (Present Indefinite) and Present Continuous 13
EXERCISES16
Unit 3
Present Perfect 21
EXERCISES 24
Unit 4
Present Perfect Continuous 26
EXERCISES 27
Unit 5
Past Simple (Indefinite) 30
Past Continuous 31
EXERCISES 33
Unit 6
Past Perfect 40
Past Perfect Continuous 44
EXERCISES 46
Unit 7
Future Simple (Future Indefinite) 52
Future Continuous 52
Future Perfect 53
Future Perfect Continuous 53
Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared 53
EXERCISES 55
Unit 8
Means of Expressing Future Actions Viewed from the Past 57
Rules of the Sequence of Tenses 58
EXERCISES 59
Unit 9
Voice 65
Active Voice 65
Passive Voice 65
Types of Passive Constructions 65
EXERCISES 66
CHAPTER II: MODAL VERBS 71
Unit 10
Mood 71
Modal Verbs 71
can/could 72
EXERCISES 73
Unit 11
may/might 77
can and may compared 78
must 78
must and may compared 79
EXERCISES 79
Unit 12
have to 88
be to 88
must, have to and be to compared 89
EXERCISES 90
Unit 13
ought to 93
shall 93
should 94
must, ought to and should compared 95
EXERCISES 95
Unit 14
should, ought to, was/were to + Perfect Infinitive compared 100
will and would 100
need 102
dare 102
shouldn’t, oughtn't to, needn't + Perfect Infinitive compared 103
Expressions of Absence of Necessity 103
EXERCISES 103
CHAPTER III: FORMS EXPRESSING UNREALITY 109
Unit 15
Forms Expressing Unreality 109
Unreality in Object Clauses 111
EXERCISES 112
Unit 16
wish-clauses 114
Other Types of Object Clauses 115
Unreality in Appositive and Predicative Clauses 116
Unreality in Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 116
Unreality in Adverbial Clauses of Comparison 117
EXERCISES 118
Unit 17
Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condition 123
Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession 125
Unreality in Exclamatory Sentences 125
EXERCISES 125
Unit 18
Free Use of Unreality 130
Traditional Use of Unreality 131
Tense Forms Expressing Unreality 131
EXERCISES 132
CHAPTER IV: VERBALS (NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB) 137
Unit 19
Infinitive and ing-form 137
General System of Verbal Functions 139
Participle 141
Unit 20 Verbals as Subject
Infinitive as Subject 143
ing-form as Subject 143
Infinitive and ing-form as Subject Compared 144
EXERCISES 144
Unit 21 Verbals as Predicative
Infinitive as Predicative 145
ing-form as Predicative 145
Infinitive and ing-form as Predicative Compared 145
EXERCISES 146
Unit 22 Verbals as Predicate
Infinitive as Predicate 147
ing-form as Predicate 147
Unit 23 Verbals as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate
Infinitive as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148
ing-form as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148
Participle as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148
EXERCISES 149
Unit 24 Verbals as a Second Action Accompanying the Action
Of the Predicate Verb
Infinitive as a Second Action 151
ing-form as a Second Action 151
Participle as a Second Action 152
EXERCISES 152
Unit 25 Verbals as Object
Infinitive as Object 155
ing-form as Object 156
Infinitive and ing-form as Object Compared 158
EXERCISES 159
Unit 26 Verbals as Subjective Predicative(Complex Subject)
Infinitive and ing-form as Subjective Predicative (Complex Subject) 169
Participle as Subjective Predicative (Complex Subject) 170
EXERCISES 170
Unit 27 Verbals as Objective Predicative (Complex Object)
Infinitive and ing-form as Objective Predicative (Complex Object) 173
Participle as Objective Predicative (Complex Object) 175
EXERCISES 175
Unit 28 Verbals as Adverbial Modifier
Infinitive as Adverbial Modifier 181
ing-form as Adverbial Modifier 183
Participle as Adverbial Modifier 184
EXERCISES 184
Unit 29 Verbals as Attribute
Infinitive as Attribute 187
Ing-form as Attribute 188
Infinitive and ing-form as Attribute Compared 189
Infinitive and ing-form as Attribute in Sentences with it 189
Participle as Attribute 189
EXERCISES 190
Unit 30 Verbals as Parenthesis
Infinitive as Parenthesis 199
ing-form as Parenthesis 199
Infinitive and ing-form as Parenthesis Compared 199
EXERCISES 200
REFERENCES204
CHAPTER I
PARTS OF SPEECH. THE VERB
UNIT 1
Parts of Speech
| Indo-European Family of Languages | ||||||
| Indian | Iranian | Armenian | Germanic | Celtic | Balto-Slavic | Italic |
| ENGLISH | RUSSIAN |
English and Russian have much in common but still differ in grammar. The words of every language fall into classes, which are called parts of speech. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function.
Parts of speech have different lexical meanings. Nouns name objects; adjectives express characteristics; verbs denote process, state or attitude towards another action, etc. Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories; other parts of speech areinvariable -they have only one form.
Parts of speech also differ from each other in theirsyntactic functions (function in the sentence). All words may be divided into two main groups:notional andstructural. Notional words have lexical meanings, structural words differ from notional wordssemantically: their lexical meaning is of general character (in, and, even) and they express relations between words in a sentence.
| notional parts of speech | functional parts of speech |
| The Adjective | The Conjunction |
| The Adverb | The Particle |
| The Interjection | The Preposition |
| The Noun | |
| The Numeral | |
| The Pronoun | |
| The Verb |
§ The article is a determiner of the noun
The Verb
Verbs are words denotingactions, activity(to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process(to sleep, to wait, to live),state(to be, to like, to know),relation(to want, can, may).
1) According to the meaning verbs can be divided into two groups —terminative and durative.
Terminative verbs have a final aim in view,to open, to close, to bring, to recognise, to refuse, to break.
Durative verbs do not have such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play. But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another:e.g. to see may have the terminative meaning 'увидеть' and the durative meaning 'видеть'; to know may denote 'знать' and 'узнать'. The meaning of the verb becomes clear from thecontext:
Cf. I saw him at once.
I saw his face quite clearly.
2) According to their relation to continuous, verbs fall into two groups:dynamicverbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous forms (a) andstative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous forms (b).
§ a) Wewere eating dinner when he called.
§ You'll find Mother in the kitchen. Sheis making a cake. (dynamic)
§ b) Iunderstand what youmean. I don't see him in the crowd. (stative)
The list of most commonly used stative verbs:
a) verbs ofphysical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;
b) verbs denotingemotions: to adore, to care for, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denotingwish; to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denotingmental processes: to admire, to appreciate, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to expect, to feel, to imagine, to know, to mind, to recognise, to recollect (припоминать), to remember, to suppose, to think, to trust, to understand;
e)relational verbs: to be, to belong, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ;
f) someother verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear, to taste.
3) English verbs are also classified according to thetype of object they take. Verbs that require object to complete their meaning are calledtransitive(v.t. – verb transitive). Verbs that do not require any object are calledintransitive(v.i. – verb intransitive):
§ He lay on the sofa. (v.i.)
§ He laid the book on the shelf. (v.t.)
The objects transitive verbs take may bedirect (a),indirect (b) orprepositional (c).
§ (a) I'm tellingthe truth.
§ (b) His mother never gavehim advice.
§ (c) Let's talkof something sensible.
4) According to the meaning and function English verbs are notional andstructural(link-verb and auxiliary). Notional verbs have alexical meaning:
§ During the war helived in London.
Alink-verb is followed by apredicative; together they form anominal predicate:
§ Hewas a middle-agedman.
Sometimes a verb has no lexical meaning and is called anauxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build upanalytical forms.
§ The young manwas sitting at the table alone.
Finite Forms of the Verb
English verbs can be divided into finiteand non-finite forms. The finite forms have the function of the predicate. The non-finites (infinitive, ing-form and participle) are called theverbals. The finite forms of the verb have the followinggrammatical categories:
1) Person and Number;
2) Tense, Aspect and Phase;
3) Voice;
Mood
We find three basic forms of the verb. These forms are: 1) theplain verb stem (infinitive without the particle to); 2) thePast Indefinite, and 3) thepast participle. All verbs can be regular andirregular.
The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds - synthetic oranalytical. Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes(I work, he works, we worked). Analytical forms consist of two components:
§ Hehas worked hard.
Tense, Aspect and Phase
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English — theContinuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning. The Continuous forms have a clear-cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its temporary development.
Besides, there are thePerfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness (относительность), which consists of two elements — priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the namephase.
1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is necessary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence:
§ He knows English.
§ He knew English.
§ He will know English.
In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b):
§ a) Whenyoufeel hungry, I'll bring you some sandwiches.
If Iwant anything I'll call you up.
§ b) She knew that Henrywould be waiting for her.
I wondered if hehad kept his promise.
In such cases we have thestructurally dependent use of finite forms.
In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a subordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to makesure the future forms are not used.
§ He'll take care that shecomes in time.
§ She saw to it that theyhad plenty of food in the house.
In such cases we have thelexically dependent use of finite forms.
2) Closely connected with the above notion is theabsolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action directly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which,as a rule, is structurally independent.
But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the subordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be called assimultaneity, priority and posteriority.) In this case we are dealing with the relative use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).
§ Hediscovered that his wifeknew London far better than hedid.
§ Heknew that shehad read his thoughts.
§ Hethought that hewould hate the place.
3) We should differentiate betweenpresent-time contexts andpast-time contexts.
Inpresent-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspaper and radio reports, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. Any finite form that is required by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reservation should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in present-time contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.
Inpast-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. So, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.
UNIT 2