Translating the subjunctive mood forms
In both English and Russian the Subjunctive Mood expresses a hypothetical, unreal action. In Russian, there is only one form: the past form of the verb + the particle бы: Я хотел бы пойти туда. (In informal speech, though, the verb can be omitted, with only the particle expressing the hypothetical action: Чайку бы! Sometimes the Russian subjunctive form can be reduced to the conjunction чтобы only.) In English, unlike Russian, there are many verb forms to express the subjunctive mood: synthetic forms be/do, were/did; analytical forms should/would, do/have done, might/could do/have done, may/can do, had done, which is a challenge for a fledgling translator.
Usage of the English subjunctive forms depends on the clause structure and semantics of the main verb. Thus, adverbial clauses of condition presuppose the usage of the were/ did or had done forms: Если бы я только знала… - If only I knew (had known), nominative (object, subject, attributive, predicative, that is, nominal part of the predicate) clauses predetermine the usage of (should) do forms: Предлагаю, чтобы он это сделал. – I suggest that he (should) do it. On the other hand, clauses of the same syntactic function vary depending on the meaning of the main verb. For example, in object clauses that depend on the verb wish, the were/did form can be used (I wish it were summer), as well as had done forms (I wish he had not discussed it with you yesterday.) In clauses depending on information verbs and expressing proposition the (should) do form is used (In the year 325 A.D. it was decreed that Easter fall on the first Sunday after the full moon following the first day of spring.). If a clause depends on the verb denoting anxiety, the can (could) / may (might) forms are used: I am afraid that he could forget it.
The Russian subjunctive mood form does not indicate time relations, there being only one verb form. In English a speaker shows time distinctions by the verb forms: If I had known it yesterday and if I knew it now… I wish I could help you (now). I wish I could have helped you in that accident. To render in Russian the meaning of the English sentence one has to compensate the English verb form by some modifier indicating time: If she were in New York, she would certainly call you. – Если бы она сейчас была в Нью-Йорке, она бы, конечно, позвонила вам. If you had followed your father’s advice and gone into the army, you would probably be a colonel by now. – Если бы ты тогда послушал совета своего отца и пошел бы в армию, сейчас ты, возможно, был бы уже полковником. If the meaning of time is clear from the context, a zero transformation is employed in Russian: The demonstration would have passed off quite peacefully, had the organizers taken a few elementary precautions. – Если бы организаторы предусмотрели элементарные меры безопасности, демонстрация прошла бы вполне мирно.
To render some structures, the “problematic condition” in particular, it is necessary to substitute the subjunctive mood by the future tense form of the indicative mood, compensating lexically the specific construction meaning: Should I not be promoted, I'm going to have to go out and look for a better-paying job. – Если все жеменя не повысят в должности, я буду вынужден уехать в поисках лучше оплачиваемой работы.
Constructions with the ‘wish’-clauses often require antonymous translation: I wish she were here. – Жаль, что ее здесь нет. I wish you had not said it to him. – Жаль, что ты ему это сказал.
It is not infrequent that English and Russian sentences differ in degree of certainty or uncertainty expressed by the mood construction. An English sentence shows more vividly the speaker’s attitude to the situation, whether s/he considers the situation real or unreal. Cf. It looks as if he were sick. (I am not sure). – It looks as if he is sick. (He really is but I wouldn’t like to sound categorical.) In Russian this subtle difference in meaning is lost: Кажется, он болен.
Chapter 3. TRANSLATING NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
TRANSLATING THE INFINITIVE
The challenges in translating the English infinitive are due to its specific forms, functions and structures.
Unlike Russian, the English language possesses a number of forms of the same verb: the Simple infinitive, the Continuous infinitive, the Perfect infinitive, the Perfect Continuous infinitive. The first two forms indicate actions simultaneous with that of the main predicate: Я рада, что вижу вас. – I am glad to see you. Я рада, что читаю эту книгу. – I am glad to be reading the book, or the future actions: Я рада, что пойду туда. – I am glad to go there. The Perfect and Perfect Continuous infinitives denote actions prior to that of the predicate: Я рада, что увидела вас. - I am glad to have seen you. Я рада, что читала эту книгу. – I am glad to have been reading the book. On the other hand, the difference between the Simple / Perfect and Continuous / Perfect Continuous forms of the infinitive lies in expressing either a fact (incomplete or completed) or a process, respectively:
рад, что делаю (каждый день) – glad to do (every day)
рад, что делаю сейчас – glad to be doing
рад, что буду делать – glad to do
рад сделать (что сделаю) – glad to do
рад, что сделал – glad to have done
рад, что делал – glad to have been doing.
The actual meaning of the infinitive can be determined by the context only.
English infinitive functions can also be a stumbling block for a fledgling translator. The attributive function of the infinitive can cause difficulties in translation due to its modal meaning: This is a book to read. – Вот книга, которую можно (нужно) почитать. The type of modal meaning can be seen from the context: When nature has work to be done, she creates a genius to do it. (Emerson) – Когда природе предстоитчто-то сделать, она создает гения, который может сделать это. However, it is not always necessary to verbalize the modal meaning in Russian: The latest reports from Europol, the organization to be established for the coordination of police work in all the countries of the European Union, indicates that it has not yet been able to agree on a single working language. – В последних докладах Европола, организации, созданной для координации работы полиции во всех странах Европейского Союза, отмечается, что в вопросе о едином рабочем языке согласия еще не достигнуто. As is seen from the examples, the attributive infinitive usually has the meaning of a future action/state.
The function of some adverbial infinitives presents difficulties in translation. For example, the English infinitive can be used to denote a subsequent event or a parallel action, which is often confused with the infinitive of purpose: Iron combines with oxygen to form rust. – Железо соединяется с кислородом и образует ржавчину. The infinitive in this function is usually rendered by a parallel finite verb: (In many rooms, one wall or another was overgrown with black-green mold.) … In some rooms, the mold grew thickly halfway down a wall, only to stop in a sharp horizontal line, as if cut by a knife. – (Во многих комнатах одна-две стены были покрыты темно-зеленой плесенью)…В некоторых комнатах плесень густо покрывала полстены, и резко прерывалась, словно ножом была проведена горизонтальная линия.
This infinitive should be distinguished from the infinitive of purpose: Live not to eat, but eat to live. – Живи не для того, чтобы есть, но ешь для того, чтобы жить.
When translating the infinitive of result, a translator should take care to render properly the connotation of the construction: the infinitive with too implies a negative meaning, while the infinitive with enough suggests a positive one: She is too old to go there. – Она слишком стара и не поедет туда. She is old enough to go there. – Она достаточно взрослая и может поехать туда.
Infinitive constructions are the most challenging problem. They are usually translated by a clause. For instance, the Complex Object construction: We expect them to pay us by Friday. – Мы ожидаем, что нам дадут зарплату к пятнице.
When translating the Complex Subject construction, it is recommended that the finite verb be translated first, and then the subject and the infinitive be joined to form a clause: After a few minutes the men were seen to be running in all directions. – Через несколько минут увидели, что эти люди бегут в разные стороны. The letter seems to have been opened. – Кажется, письмо уже вскрыли. The main verb of the sentence is translated with the indefinite or impersonal form (кажется, видели) or with a parenthetical phrase (конечно, по-видимому, очевидно): The reporters were certain to misunderstand his attendance... – Конечно, журналисты неправильно истолковали его присутствие .., or by an introductory phrase (согласно сообщению, как сообщают): The EPO is expected to make a final decision in the near future. – Как ожидают, Европейское патентное ведомство примет решение в ближайшем будущем.
When dealing with the for-to-infinitive construction, a translator substitutes an English simple sentence with a Russian complex one, i.e. s/he does the partitioning of the sentence: She arranged for the office to be opened by one of the security people. – Она устроила так, что офис открыл один из охранников. In some cases this type of construction can be rendered by a compound sentence: He was a very nice fellow, you had only to say you wanted something for him to give it to you. – Он был очень славный малый: стоило вам только сказать, что вам что-то нужно, и он тут же давал это вам.
Special difficulties can arise from the Absolute construction with the infinitive. This construction usually has the meaning either of concession or of successive events: With so much to say, the two said nothing. – И хотя этим двоим так много надо было сказать, они не сказали ничего. The resolution calls for the withdrawal of Israeli troops from occupied territories, with a peace conference to follow. – В резолюции содержится призыв вывести израильские войска с оккупированных территорий, после чего будет созвана мирная конференция.
To summarize, the ways of translating English infinitives are as follows:
· by the infinitive: To err is human. – Человеку свойственно ошибаться.
· by the noun: The best way to make children good is to make them happy. – Лучший способ воспитания хороших детей – это сделать их счастливыми.
· by the participle: The problem to be considered in Chapter 2 is concerned with the article. – Вопрос, рассматриваемый в главе 2, касается артикля.
· by the clause: Вопрос, который будет рассмотрен в главе 2, касается артикля.
· by homogeneous, that is, parallel, verbs: He went to Australia to fall sick there. – Он поехал в Австралию и там заболел.
TRANSLATING THE GERUND
The gerund is not a regular equivalent of the Russian adverbial participle (деепричастие). It is closer to the verbal noun than to the adverbial participle.
The gerund can be translated by the following means:
· the noun: A woman’s idea of keeping a secret is refusing to tell who told it. – Представление женщины о том, как надо хранить секрет, - это отказ сообщить, кто ей его рассказал.
· the infinitive: There’s nothing more tragic in life than the utter impossibility of changing what you have done. – Нет ничего трагичнее в жизни, чем абсолютная невозможность изменить то, что ты сделал.
· the adverbial participle: Learn to swim by swimming. – Учись плавать, плавая.
· the clause: I am always ready to learn, but I do not always like being taught.(Churchill) – Я всегда готов учиться, но мне не всегда нравиться, когда меня учат. The gerundial construction is always translated by the clause: He was amused at my becomingso impatient with him. – Он удивился тому, что я стал так нетерпелив с ним. He stayed there without our knowing it. – Он остался там, а мы даже не знали об этом.
When translating from Russian into English, it is necessary to pay attention to the careful selection of either the single gerund or the gerundial construction. While in the Russian sentence the subject is named twice, the English sentence does not take the same subject before the gerund. Cf.: Я настаиваю на том, чтобы мне позвонили. – I insist on being phoned. The gerundial construction in English is used only in case of two different subjects in the sentence: I remember his asking the question. – Помню, как он задал этот вопрос.
Some practical grammars of English do not distinguish the –ing participle and the gerund. However, in translation the difference can be essential, since the gerund and the participle have different functions and, therefore, convey different meanings. For instance, Flying planes can be dangerous can be translated as Летать на самолетах опасно, if flying is used here as a gerund. The sentence could also be translated Летающие самолеты опасны, the word flying being treated as a participle.
TRANSLATING THE PARTICIPLE
The difference between the English and Russian participle concerns its form and usage.
As for the form, the English participle exists in two special forms – the Present Participle and the Past Participle, the former varying into Simple and Perfect, active and passive forms. The Russian participle is altered according to time and voice distinctions. Furthermore, there is a form, called the adverbial participle (деепричастие) which varies by the tense. Thus, a general correspondence between English and Russian participles can be given as follows:
| -ing | -ущ-/-ющ-, -ащ-/-ящ- -вш-/-ш- (Vimperf.) | -а-/-я |
| dropping falling | роняющий, ронявший падающий, падавший | роняя падая |
| -ing + -ed | -ом-/-ем-, -им-, -вш-+-ся | |
| being dropped | роняемый, ронявшийся | |
| having+-ed | -вш-/-ш- | -в, -вши, -ши |
| having dropped having fallen | уронивший упавший | уронив упав |
| having been+-ed | -енн-/-нн-, -т- | |
| having been dropped | уроненный | |
| -ed | -енн- (Vt) -вш- (Vi), -ш- | -в(Vi) |
| dropped (Vtrans) | уроненный | |
| fallen (Vintrans) | упавший | упав |
For example, The main problem is rising prices. – Основная проблема – растущие цены.
Rising crime has driven many families out of downtown areas. – Возросший уровень преступности вынудил многие семьи уехать из центра города.
The Chairman, having risen from his seat, was beginning to speak. – Уже вставший со своего места председатель начал свою речь.
The government, raising taxes, cuts public spending. – Правительство, увеличивающее налоги, сокращает расходы на общественные нужды.
Raising her voice, she made herself heard over the noise in the classroom. – Повысив голос, она заставила класс услышать себя, несмотря на шум.
Raised taxes is no news for us. – Увеличенные налоги – для нас не новость.
Risen by 10% every year, salaries did not keep up with prices. – Возраставшие ежегодно на 10% зарплаты, тем не менее, не поспевали за ценами.
Note, however, that not all Russian verbs have the entire set of participial forms; some of them lack adverbial participles (e.g., ждать, писать, беречь, мерзнуть, бежать).
The English participle can be translated not only by the Russian participle or adverbial participle, but also by the clause: The cat shuts its eyes when stealing cream. –Когда кошка крадет сливки, она закрывает глаза. In this case, the English sentence is more laconic, since in Russian the subject is repeated twice, whereas in English only once: Если человек нужен, его ищут. – When wanted, a man is looked for.
Sometimes a Russian noun accompanied by a preposition may correspond to the English participle: Aspirin can be poisonous when taken in excessive amounts. – При приеме в больших количествах аспирин может быть ядом.
A parallel verb may also be used: She sat reading. – Она сидела ичитала.
Sometimes, to translate a participle, it is necessary to transform the entire sentence: When seen from this angle, the picture looks rather good. - Если смотреть на картину с этой стороны, она кажется достаточно интересной. When shot, Mrs. Doran was apparently taking a walk. – Миссис Доран была убита, очевидно, во время прогулки.125