Special colloquial vocabulary
a) Slang
There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang.Slangseems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.
The first thing that strikes the scholar is the fact that no other European language has singled out a special layer of vocabulary and named it slang, though all of them distinguish such groups of words as jargon, cant (жаргон, арго), and the like.
Webster’s “Third New International Dictionary” gives the following meanings of the term:
Slang[origin unknown] 1: language peculiar to a particular group: as a: the special and often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior: argot/’a:gou/; b: the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of activity; 2: a non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized primarily by connotations; of extreme informality and usu. a currency not limited to a particular region and composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced’ or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse.
The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows:
“a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type, b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting-either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”
Slangis represented both as a special vocabulary and as a special language.
J. B. Greenough and C. L. Kitteridge define slang in these words:
“Slang... is a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.”
Another definition of slang which is worth quoting is one made by Eric Partridge, the eminent student of the non-literary language.
“Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech. To coin a term on a written page is almost inevitably to brand it as a neologism which will either be accepted or become a nonce-word (or phrase), but, except in the rarest instances, that term will not be slang.”
Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet been received into standard English is easily branded as slang.
The confusion is made still deeper by the fact that any word or expression apparently legitimate, if used in an arbitrary, fanciful or metaphorical sense, may easily be labelled as slang. Many words formerly labelled as slang have now become legitimate units of standard English. Thus the word kid (= child), which was considered low slang in the nineteenth century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the English literary language.
The most conspicuous features of slang: it requires continuous innovation. It never grows stale.If a slang word or phrase does become stale, it is replaced by a new slangism. Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the language.
What is labelled as slang can frequently appear in lively everyday speech and just as quickly disappear from the language, or these are jocular words and word-combinations that are formed by using the various means of word-building existing in the language and also by distorting the form or sense of existing words:
to take stock in—‘to be interested in, attach importance, give cre/i:/dence (вера, доверие) to’
bread-basket—‘the stomach’ (a jocular use)
to do a flit ‘to quit one’s flat or lodgings at night without paying the rent or board’
rot - ‘nonsense!’
the cat’s pyjamas— ‘the correct thing’
According to Eric Partridge, there are many kinds of slang: cockney, public-house, commercial, society, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others.
The following is an interesting example illustrating the contrast between standard English and non-literary English including slang:
“Tell her I am on my way to the station, to leave for San Francisco, where I shall join that Alaska moosehunting (амер. лось) expedition. Tell her that, since she has commanded me neither to speak nor to write to her, I take this means of making one last appeal to her sense of justice, for the sake of what has been. Tell her that to condemn and discard one who has not deserved such treatment, without giving him her reason or a chance to explain is contrary to her nature as I believe it to be.”
This message was delivered in the following manner:
“He told me to tell yer he’s got his collars and cuffs in dat grip for a scoot clean out to’ Frisco. Den he’s goin’ to shoot snowbirds in de Klondike. He says yer told him to send’ round no more pink notes nor come hangin’ over de garden gate, and he takes dis mean (sending the boy to speak for him.— /. G.) of putting yer wise. He says yer referred to him like a has-been, and never give him no chance to kick at de decision. He says yer swiled him and never said why.”
It is suggestive that there is a tendency in some modern dictionaries to replace the label slang by informal or colloquial.’
On the other hand, some lexicographers, as has already been pointed out, still make use of the term ‘slang’ as a substitute for ‘jargon’, ‘cant’, ‘colloquialism’, ‘professionalism’, ‘vulgar’, ‘dialectal’.
Thus, in his dictionary Prof. Barnhart gives the label sl. to such innovations as “grab— to cause (a person) to react; make an impression on”, which should be classed as newspaper jargon; “grass or pot - marijuana”, which are positively cantwords (the quotation that follows proves it quite unambiguously); “groove - something very enjoyable,” “grunt (пехотинец) -U.S.- military slang”, which in fact is a professionalism; “gyppy tummy, British slang,— a common intestinal upset experienced by travellers”, which is a colloquialism; “hangup (причина нервозности, раздражения, «пунктик»)—a psychological or emotional problem”, which is undoubtedly a professionalism.
Thus, the term ‘slang’ is ambiguous because, to use a figurative expression, it has become a Jack of all trades and master of none.
b) Jargonisms
Jargonis a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms_are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them.
Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them: grease -‘money’; loaf -‘head’; a tiger hunter - ‘a gambler’; a lexer - ‘a student preparing for a law course’,
Jargonisms are social in character. The following jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally, known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.
“He from the world had cut off a great man,
Who in his time had made heroic bustle. Who in a row like Tom could lead the van,
Booze in the ken1or at the spellken 2 hustle? Who queer a flat s? Who (spite of Bow street’s ban)
On the high toby-spice 4 so flash the muzzle? Who on a lark 6, with black-eyed Sal (his blowing) 9
So prime, so swell 7, so nutty 8, and so knowing?”
(“Don Juan” by Byron)
1 ken = a house in which harbours thieves
2 spellken = a play-house or theatre
3 to queer a flat = to puzzle a silly fellow
4 to flash the muzzle (gun) on the high toby-spice = to rob on horse back
5 a lark = fun or sport of any kind
6 a blowing = a girl
3 swell = gentlemanly
8 nutty = pleasing (to be nuts on = to be infatuated with)
Jargonisms do not always remain the possession of a given social group. Some of them migrate into other social strata and sometimes become recognized in the literary language of the nation. G. H. McKnight writes:
“The language of the underworld provided words facetiously adopted by the fashionable world, many of which, such as fan and queer and banter (добродушное подшучивание, шутливая беседа) and bluff and sham (поддельный, фальшивый, фиктивный) and humbug (обман надувательство, ложь, притворство), eventually made their way into dignified use.”
Jargonisms are therefore easily classified according to the social divisions of the given period. There is a common jargon and there are also special professional jargons.
Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark.
Piou-Pioti/,pju:’pju:/ -‘a French soldier, a private in the infantry’. (франц. cолдат, пехотинец). According to Eric Partridge this word has already passed from military jargon to ordinary colloquial speech.
Hummen - ‘a false arrest’ (American)
Dar - (from damned average raiser) - ‘a persevering and assiduous student’. (University jargon)
Matlo(w)/’mætlou/ - ‘a sailor’ (from the French word ‘matelot’)
Man and wife—‘a knife’ (rhyming slang)
Manany /mæ’nja:nə/ - ‘a sailor who is always putting off a job or work’ (nautical jargon) (from the Spanish word ‘manana’—‘tomorrow’).
Other examples: brass (money in general, cash), joker— ‘something used to play a trick or win one’s point or object with’ from, card-playing, drag—‘to rob vehicles’; to soap-box—‘to make speeches out-of-doors standing on a soap-box’.
But soap and flannel meaning ‘bread’and ‘cheese’(naval) - can be classed as jargonisms.
Both slang and the various jargons of Great Britain differ much more from those of America
c) Professionalisms
Professionalisms- are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home.
Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality.
The semantic structure of a professionalism is often dimmed by the image on which the meaning of the professionalism is based. Like terms, professionalisms do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic:
tin-fish(=submarine); block-buster (=a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings) piper (=a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe); a midder case (=a midwifery case); outer (=a knockout blow).
Some professionalisms, however, like certain terms, become popular and gradually lose their professional flavour: the word crane which Byron used in his “Don Juan”:1) ‘to stretch out the neck like a crane before a dangerous leap’; 2) ‘to hesitate at an obstacle, a danger’ (“No good craning at it. Let’s go down.” (Galsworthy)
T. Dreiser “Financier”:
‘Frank soon picked up all the technicalities of the situation. A “bull”, ‘he learned, was one who bought in anticipation of a higher price to come; and if he was “loaded” up with a “line” of stocks he was said to be “long”. He sold to “realize” his profit, or if his margins were exhausted he was “wiped out”. A “bear” was one who sold stocks which most frequently he did not have, in anticipation of a lower price at which he could buy and satisfy his previous sales. He was “short”when he had sold what he did not own, and he was “covered” when he bought to satisfy his sales and to realize his profits or to protect himself against further loss in the case prices advanced instead of declining. He was in a “corner” when he found that he could not buy in order to make good the stock he had borrowed for delivery and the return of which had been demanded. He was then obliged to settle practically at a price fixed by those to whom he and other “shorts” had sold’.
There are certain fields of human activity which enjoy nation-wide interest and popularity (in Great Britain - sports and games). Here is an example of the use of such professionalisms in fiction,
“Father Knickerbocker met them at the ferry giving one a right-hander on the nose and the other an uppercut with his leftjust to let them know that the fight was on”( O. Henry “The Duel”.
Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology.
Canadian Globe and Mail:
JOURNALESE
I was glad to read recently how incomprehensible the language of city planners is to newspapermen. I decided to call the author of the article and express my appreciation:
“Hello, I’d like to speak to a reporter of yours named Terrance Wills.”
“Is he on city sideor the night rewrite desk?”
“I’m not sure. Maybe he’s at his type-writer.”
The operator said something under his breath and then connected me to the third assistant executive city editor. After about 15 minutes of this I was finally able to communicate directly with Mr. Wills:
“That was a great story you did on ‘plannerese’, sir,” I told him. “Where did you get the idea for it?”
“Why, I just went to the morgueone day when there weren’t many obitsto do and I got a few clippings.Then I talked with the copy-editorand he gave me a 32-point italic headline with an overhanging deck.”
“Is that good?”
“Sure it is. Even a cubknows that. Well I wrote a couple of takesand got it in the boxjust before the deadlinefor the second night final edition.”
“Is that hard to do?” I asked. My head was beginning to ache.
“What? Sure, I guess. Listen, I’d like to discuss this with you further but I’m on the rewrite desk and my legman is going to be calling in a scoop any minute now. Good-bye.”
d) Dialectal words
Dialectal wordsare those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries; and their user is generally confined to a definite locality.
With reference to this group there is a confusion of terms, particularly between the terms dialectal and vernacular.
Cecil Wyld’s “A History of Modern Colloquial English”:
“The history of a very large part of the vocabulary of the present-day English dialects is still very obscure, and it is doubtful whether much of it is of any antiquity. So far very little attempt has been made to sift the chaff from the grain in that very vast receptacle of the English Dialect Dictionary, and to decide which elements are really genuine ‘corruptions’ of words which the yokel /’joukəl/ (деревенщина, мужлан) has heard from educated speakers, or read, misheard, or misread, and ignorantly altered, and adopted, often with a slightly twisted significance. Probably many hundreds of ‘dialect’ words are of this origin, and have no historical value whatever, except inasmuch as they illustrate a general principle in the modification of speech. Such words are not, as a rule, characteristic of any Regional Dialect, although they may be ascribed to one of these, simply because some collector of dialect forms has happened to hear them in a particular area. They belong rather to the category of ‘mistakes’ which any ignorant speaker may make, and which such persons do make, again and again, in every part of the country.”
There is a definite similarity of functions in the use of slang, cockney and any other form of non-literary English and that of dialectal words. All these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, and education etc.
There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from colloquial words: lass ‘a girl or a beloved girl’, lad‘a boy or a young man’, ‘daft’from the Scottish and the northern dialect, meaning ‘of unsound mind, silly’; fashalso Scottish, with the meaning of ‘trouble, cares’
Of quite a different nature are dialectal words which are easily recognized as corruption of standard English words: hinny from honey; tittie apparently from sister, a children corruption of the word; cutty meaning a testy (вспыльчивый, раздражительный, брюзгливый) or naughty girl or woman’.
Most of the examples so far quoted come from the Scottish and the northern dialects.
Among other dialects used for stylistic purposes in literature is the southern dialect (in particular that of Somersetshire): ‘volk’ (folk), ‘vound’ (found), ‘zee’ (see), ‘zinking’ (sinking).
Galsworthy’s “A Bit of Love.”:
“Mrs. Burlacomble: ZurelyI give ‘im a nummit afore ‘e gets up; an’ ‘e ‘as ‘is brekjus reg’larat nine. Must feed unup. He’mon ‘is feet all day, goin’ to zeefolk that widdenwant to zeean angel, they’mthat busy; an’ when ‘ecomes in ‘e ‘U play ‘isflute there. He’m wastin’away for want of ‘is wife. That’s what’tis. On’ ‘imso zweet-spoken, tu,‘tis a pleasure to year ‘im—Never zays a word!”
Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles.
The unifying tendency of the literary language is so strong that language elements used only in dialect are doomed to vanish, except, perhaps, those which, because of their vigour and beauty, have withstood the integrating power of the written language.
Words which are easily understood by the average Englishman are: maister, wee (омут, водоворот ), eneu/u/gh (достаточно), laird/leid/ (помещик), naething /nei/.
Dialectal. words, unlike professionalisms, are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal, as H. C. Wyld points out, with the everyday life of the country.
“Such words will for the most part be of a more or less technical character, and connected with agriculture, horses, cattle and sport.”