Shell, should, shouldn’t

1. Translate the following sentences.

Note that the modal verbs are used with the meaning of giving advice and recommendation.

1. Science can help discover the causes and effects of climate change, but what we should do is an ethical question.

2. A novice like me probably shouldn’t be working with 120 volts of alternating current.

3. The far side of the Moon should not be confused with the dark side, which isthe hemisphere that is not being illuminated by the Sun at a given moment.

4. This frequently is viewed as the principal contribution provided by von Neumann's insight into the nature of what a computer should be.

5. In theory, under weightless conditions, it should be possible to fabricate ball bearings, grow semiconductor crystals and purify Pharmaceuticals without imperfections caused by gravity.1. 6. 6. This combined observational and theoretical effortshould shed light on various mysteries that now plague the theory of galaxy formation.

Should, shouldn’t + the Perfect Infinitive

1. Translate the following sentences.

Note the meaning of somethingthat didn’t happen in the past and we regret it.

1. We should have evaluated the well being of future generations.

2. The rich shouldn’t have perpetrated an injustice on the world’s poor by emitting greenhouse gases.

Need, ought to, dare (semi-modals)

1. Translate the sentences.

1. Theyneed only study the brain's neural structure and join artificial neurons to form the same functional pattern.

2. Another phenomenon that observers need to take into account is that cosmic expansion has stretched the photons to longer wave lengths.

3. The forces and particles of nature ought to be described, preferably including their key properties, such as interaction strength.

4. The author describes in his book how Copernicus dared to displace the Earth from the centre of the system< and how Kepler and Newton provided the laws needed to predict the planets’ wandering in the context of Copernician system.

5. We need to be thinking about how to help developing nations that cannot grow food to industrialize so they can get foreign exchange to buy food.

2. Note the following.

The verb need can be used both with and without to.

Part two

Practice

1. Translate the sentences.

1. Just two pulses were detected over almost a year, and they might have been caused by dark matter.

2. Such a functional approach began with LISP (1961), but had to be forced into a conventional hardware-software environment. New functional programming architectures may be developed from the ground up.

3. In theory, under weightless conditions, it should be possible to fabricate ball bearings grow semiconductor crystals and purify pharmaceuticals without imperfections caused by gravity.

4. Science couldno longerbe expected to predict with certainty the outcome of experiments.

5. Cosmologists may not actually need to invoke exotic forms of energy. If we live in an emptier-than-average region of space, then the cosmic expansion rate varies with position, which could be mistaken for a variation in time, or acceleration.

6 The glaciers, particularly in the Himalayas, may disappear and cause some of the major rivers to become much more variable, which will have negative effects on yields in south Asia. At the same time, traditional seed varieties and livestock breeds that might provide a genetic resource to adapt to climate change are being lost.

7. If we could document the spontaneous generation of just one complex life-form from inanimate matter, then at least a few creatures seen in the fossil record might have originated this way.

8. The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) experiment, located in the deep Soudan mine in Minnesota, is designed to directly detect new elementary particles that might make up the dark matter known to dominate our galaxy. In early December rumors started circulating that the CDMS experiment might actually have seen a signal.

9. To appreciatethe significance of such an event, one needs to recognize that scientists have spent the past 40 years building a magnificent theoretical house of cards that could have toppled with the slightest whiff of inconsistent data.

10. It is an unreal feeling, if you are a theorist like me, to imagine that nature might actually obey the delicate theories and fanciful ideas you develop at your desk late at night on scraps of paper or at a computer screen.

11. According to Dr Friend, future advancements could be aided by greater collaboration between different disciplines, such as engineering and medicine.

12. This is one of the questions we might be able to answer if we could get Modha and Markram to directly compare their models.

13. The effects of quantum gravity, for example, couldgenerate a huge negative pressure, causing the star to emit most of its mass in late collapse stages.

14. Further, classical processes such as powerful shock formations caused by inhomogeneities in matter densities near the naked singularity could cause it to explode.

15. A good technology must by definitionbe useful. It must be ableto survive fierce buffeting by market forces, economic and social conditions, governmental policies, quirky timing, whims of fashion and all the vagaries of human nature and custom.

16. If your accept the idea that thismight be only one of many possible universes, then hat makes this concept more plausible. Universes that started out more chaotic might not have survived or evolved to support intelligent life.

2. Explain the use of modal verbs.

To von Neumann, the key to building a general purpose device was in its ability to store not only its data and the intermediate results of computation, but also to store the instructions, or orders that brought about the computation. In a special purpose machine the computational procedure could be part of the hardware. In a general purpose one the instructions must be as changeable as the numbers they acted upon. Therefore, why not encode the instructions into numeric form and store instructions and data in the same memory? This frequently is viewed as the principal contribution provided by von Neumann's insight into the nature of what a computer should be.

Writing a paper

1. Write a paragraph (6–8 sentences) dealing with some possible/impossible things or events (past, present or future).

Use some facts from your field of specialization.

2. Use your imagination to express some bold ideas about future scientific advances.

Use the verbs might, could.

Part III

Vocabulary

1. Read the following andfind Russian equivalents of the word combinations in bold.

Does dark matter encircle Earth and heat up the gas giants?

Dark matter is five times as abundant as normal matter in the universe. But it continues to be an enigma because it is invisible and nearly always passes right through normal matter. Astronomers only found out about dark matter by inferring its presence from the gravity it exerts – notably, it keeps spinning galaxies from flying apart. Rather than peeringat distant galaxies to study it, though, astronomers might want to look closer to home: dark matter couldbe exerting measurable effects in our own solar system. Specifically, investigators should target Earth and the moon. If the mass of Earth and the moon when measured together seems greater than their masses separately, the difference couldbe attributed to a halo of dark matter in between. This conclusion is reached in part after examining studies that measured the mass of the moon with lunar orbiters and that of Earth with the LAGEOS geodetic survey satellites. Lasers fired at the satellites reveal the radius of each satellite's orbit and how long each takes to complete that orbit. From such measurements, scientists can calculate the gravitational pull on the satellites and, hence, the amount of mass exerting that pull.

2. Translate the following sentences.

1. The early quark soup phase probably holds the secret to why the universe today contains mostly matter rather than both matter and antimatter.

2. Rather than performing serial calculations like a digital processor, Lyric Semiconductor's probability-processing technology includes a circuit design that the company says performs probability calculations in parallel, taking up less space andusing less power.
3. Because our ability to increase our horizons is expanding exponentially rather than linearly we can anticipate a dramatic century of accelerating change ahead.

4. But a different type of supernova – the thermonuclear explosion of a star triggered by accretion, rather than by gravitational collapse – would still take place.

5. A different type of supernova – the thermonuclear explosion of a star triggered by accretion, rather than by gravitational collapse – would still take place.

LESSON 8

Subjunctive mood

PART I

Grammar

General

1. Read the text.

In some respects, the story of our universe resembles a Hollywood action movie. Several physicists have argued that a slight change to one of the laws of physics would cause some disaster that would disrupt the normal evolution of the universe and make our existence impossible. For example, if the strong nuclear force that binds together atomic nuclei had been slightly stronger or weaker, stars would have forged very little of the carbon and other elements that seem necessary to form planets, let alone life. If the proton were just 0.2 percent heavier than it is, all primordial hydrogen would have decayed almost immediately into neutrons, and no atoms would have formed. The list goes on.

2. Answer the questions.

1. Are the situations in sentences with parts in bold real or unreal (possible/impossible, desirable)?

2. What grammar is used to show that the situations are unreal?

3.Read the following passages.

A

By their very name, the fundamental forces sound like indispensable features of any self-respecting universe. Without the strong nuclear force to bind quarks into protons and neutrons and those into atomic nuclei, matter as we know it would not exist. Without the electromagnetic force, there would be nolight; there wouldalso be no atoms and no chemical bonds. Without gravity, there would be no force to coalesce matter into galaxies, stars and planets.

B

This marks a profound gap in our understanding, for if the value of some of these parameters had been even slightly different, the nuclear processes that power stars would likely have been disrupted, and without stars the universe would be a very different place. Whatever the dark matter is, it must interact weakly with ordinary matter; otherwise itwould have shown itself in other ways.

4. Answer the questions.

1. Do the situations in parts A and B refer to the present or past?

2. What grammar is used to show that the situation refers to the present / past?

5. Choose the correct word in italics to complete the rules.

а) We use simple / perfect form of the Infinitive after modal verbs would, should, could, might to describe unreal situation in the present.

b) We use simple / perfect form of the Infinitive after modal verbs to describe unreal situation in the past.

6. Translate passages A and B.