The History of Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering is an engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It requires a solid understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamica and energy. Practitioners of mechanical engineering, known as mechanical engineers, use these principles and others in the design and analysis of automobiles, aircraft, heating & cooling systems, manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, and more.
Mechanical engineering could be found in many ancient and medieval societies, found throughout the globe. In ancient Greece, there were brilliant mechanical engineers such as Archimede (287 BC-212 BC), as well as Heron of Alexandria (10-70 AD). The mechanical works of the latter two deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition, although there were many others who contributed to early mechanical science. In anciant China, there were also many notable figures, such as Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) and Ma Jun (200-265 AD). The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020-1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any escapement could be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world's first known endless power-transmitting chain drive.
Before the Industrial Revolution, most engineering was restricted to military and civil uses. Engineers in the military, though not always referred to as such, designed fortification systems and various war machines. Civil engineers were responsible primarily for building and ground structures. «During the early 19th century in England mechanical engineering developed as a separate field to provide manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. The first British professional society of civil engineers was formed in 1818; that for mechanical engineers followed in 1847».
In the United States, the first mechanical engineering professional society was formed in 1880, making it the third oldest type of engineering behind civil (1852) and mining & metallurgical (1871). The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1825. An engineering education is based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science; this is followed by courses emphasizing the application of this knowledge to a specific field and studies in the social sciences and humanities to give the engineer a broader education.
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Congestion
Congestion occurs when transport demand exceeds transport supply in a specific section of the transport system. Under such circumstances, each vehicle impairs the mobility of others.
The last decades have seen the extension of roads in rural but particularly in urban areas. Those infrastructures were designed for speed and high capacity, but the growth of urban circulation occurred at a rate higher than often expected. Investments came from diverse levels of government with a view to provide accessibility to cities and regions. There were strong incentives for the expansion of road transportation by providing high levels of transport supply. This has created a vicious circle of congestion which supports the construction of additional road capacity and automobile dependency. Urban congestion mainly concerns two domains of circulation, often sharing the same infrastructures:
Passengers. In many regions of the world incomes have significantly increased to the point that one automobile per household or more is common. Access to an automobile conveys flexibility in terms of the choice of origin, destination and travel time. The automobile is favored at the expense of other modes for most trips, including commuting. For instance, automobiles account for the bulk of commuting trips in the United States.
Freight. Several industries have shifted their transport needs to trucking, thereby increasing the usage of road infrastructure. Since cities are the main destinations for freight flows (either for consumption or for transfer to other locations) trucking adds to further congestion in urban areas.
Components: Delivery time (e.g. duration, possibility to fix delivery date); Reliability of delivery (e.g. availability of goods, order handling time); Flexibility of delivery (e.g. delivery date, delivery address); Quality of delivery (e.g. accurate delivery, condition of delivered goods). Unattended delivery problem: Mainly apply to parcel deliveries. Contradiction between working schedules and delivery schedules. Made worse by the growth of two income families.
Infrastructure provision was not able to keep up with the growth in the number of vehicles, even more with the total number of vehicles-km. During infrastructure improvement and construction, capacity impairment (fewer available lanes, closed sections, etc.) favors congestion. Important travel delays occur when the capacity limit is reached or exceeded, which is the case of almost all metropolitan areas. In the largest cities such as London, road traffic is actually slower than it was 100 years ago.
Marginal delays are thus increasing. Large cities have become congested most of the day, and congestion is getting more acute. Another important consideration concerns parking, which consumes large amounts of space. In automobile dependent cities, this can be very constraining as each economic activity has to provide an amount of parking space proportional to their level of activity. Parking has become a land use that greatly inflates the demand for urban land.
Daily trips can be either «mandatory» (workplace-home) or «voluntary» (shopping, leisure, visits). The former is often performed within fixed schedules while the latter comply with variable schedules. Mandatory trips are mainly responsible for the peaks in circulation flows, implying that about half the congestion in urban areas is recurring at specific times of the day and on specific segments of the transport system. The other half is caused by random events such as accidents and unusual weather conditions (rain, snowstorms, etc.).
As far as accidents are concerned, their randomness is influenced by the level of traffic as the higher the traffic on specific road segments the higher the probability of accidents. The spatial convergence of traffic causes a surcharge of transport infrastructures up to the point where congestion can lead to the total immobilization of traffic.
Not only does the massive use of the automobile have an impact on traffic circulation and congestion, but it also leads to the decline in public transit efficiency when both are sharing the same roads. In some areas, the automobile is the only mode for which infrastructures are provided. This implies less capacity for using alternative modes such transit, walking and cycling. At some levels of density, no public infrastructure investment can be justified in terms of economic returns. Longer commuting trips in terms of average travel time, the result of fragmented land uses and congestion levels are a significant trend.
Convergence of traffic at major highways that serve vast low density areas with high levels of automobile ownership and low levels of automobile occupancy. The result is energy (fuel) wasted during congestion (additional time) and supplementary commuting distances. In automobile dependent cities, five measures can help alleviate congestion to some extent:
§ Ramp metering. Controlling the access to a congested highway by letting automobiles in one at a time instead of in groups. The outcome is a lower disruption on highway traffic flows.
§ Traffic signal synchronization. Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction of traffic flows.
§ Incident management. Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or mechanical failures are removed as quickly as possible from the road.
§ HOV lanes. High Occupancy Vehicle lanes insure that vehicles with 2 or more passengers (buses, vans, carpool, etc.) have exclusive access to a less congested lane.
§ Public transit. Offering alternatives to driving that can significantly improve efficiency, notably if it circulates on its own infrastructure (subway, light rail, buses on reserved lanes, etc.).
All these measures only partially address the issue of congestion, as they alleviate, but do not solve the problem.
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