Translate into English in written form. Существует профессиональная ответственность или профессиональная этика ученого, которую некоторые исследователи называют внутренней этикой науки
Существует профессиональная ответственность или профессиональная этика ученого, которую некоторые исследователи называют внутренней этикой науки. Она включает в себя ответственность ученого перед другими учеными и перед научным сообществом в целом. Главное ее требование от ученого – это стремление к истине и быть выше всех своих амбиций. Помимо профессиональной ответственности у ученого выделяют еще и его социальную ответственность или ответственность науки перед обществом. Ее называют внешней этикой науки.
Социальная ответственность ученых чрезвычайно возрастает вместе с обострением таких экологических и глобальных проблем, как загрязнение природной среды, истощение природных ресурсов, демографический взрыв и т.д. Результатом вышеуказанного стало возрастание социальной ответственности ученого и всего научного сообщества перед обществом. Ученый не может быть освобожден от ответственности за применение результатов его исследований.
Современные фундаментальные научные исследования нельзя проводить в одиночку, т.е. без задействия целых научных коллективов. Они, как правило, требуют больших финансовых затрат. И оба эти фактора действуют ограничительно на свободу исследования. Общество ставит задачи науке. Социальная ответственность тоже ограничивает свободу выбора направления научного поиска.
Свободу научных исследований стали рассматривать как конкретный результат своего рода соглашения между ученым или научным сообществом и обществом, условия которого могут быть изменены и пересмотрены в любой момент.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
1. “The scientist I’d like a new street to be named after”.
In a new district of your town a new street has just been built. The people of the town are now discussing what name should be given to it. You believe that the street should be named after a scientist. Try to convince the jury in it. In your speech present information on:
- The name of the scientist you would like the street to be named after;
- Where and when he/she was born and worked;
- The field of science the scientist worked in;
- The discovery or invention he/she made;
- Where the results of his/her work are used now;
- Why you have chosen this scientist;
2. “Men vs Women”.
You know some professions are usually preferred by women, some by men. Some people think that there are some professions which are only for men or for women. Do you agree that nowadays there are women’s and men’s professions? Think of the arguments which support your point of view.
UNIT 8
HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
LEAD-IN
Exercise 1. Give your point of view on the following:
1. System of higher education in Russia is old-fashioned; it’s necessary to make some changes. What do you know about higher education system in Russia?
2. Advantages and disadvantages of getting higher education in Russia and abroad. Is it different from other systems of higher education?
Eercise 2. Match the words.
| 1. to confer 2. to take 3. to specialize 4. to defend 5. to sign 6. to dismiss 7. to accumulate 8. to establish | a) a decree b) a lot of arrears c) a degree d) from the University e) exams f) an organization g) a thesis h) in Science i) lectures |
Exercise 3. Find synonyms.
| 1. conferral 2. tuition fee 3. hierarchy 4. assessment 5. arrear 6. decree | a) debt b) ranking c) legislative document d) award e) estimation f) payment g) discipline |
COMPREHENSIVE READING
The system of higher education in Russia started with the foundation of the universities in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the middle of the 18thcentury. In 1724 the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, founded by Peter I, established the university and a grammar school. However, these educational establishments didn’t fulfil the task they took on. It was Michail Lomonosov who suggested the idea of establishing university in Moscow. In 1755, on 25 January, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna signed a decree of university foundation. According to Lomonosov’s plan, there were originally three faculties. First, all the students acquired a comprehensive knowledge in the field of science and humanities at the faculty of Philosophy. Then they could specialize and continue at the faculty of Philosophy or join either the Law faculty or the faculty of Medicine. Lectures were held either in Latin, the language of educated people at that time, or in Russian. Originally, tuition at Moscow University was free for all students; later only poor students were exempt from tuition fees.
Nowadays the right to education is stated in the constitution of the Russian Federation. It’s ensured by compulsory secondary schools, vocational schools and higher education establishment. Education in Russia is compulsory up to the 9th form. If a pupil of secondary school wishes to go on in higher education, he or she must stay at school for two more years. Primary and secondary school together comprise 11 years of study. After finishing the 11th form of a secondary school, a lyceum or a gymnasium one can go into higher education. All applicants must take competitive exam. Higher education institutions offer programmes of academic subjects for undergraduates in a variety of fields, as well as a graduate course and writes a thesis, he or she receives a candidate’s degree or a doctoral degree.
The higher education system of Russia offers a wide range of study and research courses meeting every possible academic need of students: intermediate diploma courses; full courses resulting in Bachelor and Master degrees; specialist’s diploma programmes; Master’s degree programme for graduates already holding Bachelor’s degrees; doctoral programmes (postgraduate study, doctoral study); continuing education and training programmes; research study programmes; upgrading and retraining courses.
The Federal law “On Education” defines the forms of educational establishments as state, municipal and non-state ones. There are presently four basic types of higher education institutions (HEIs):
1. Universities that are responsible for education and research in a variety of disciplines;
2. Academies that are responsible for education and research. They differ from universities only in that they restrict themselves to a single discipline (Academy of Arts, Academy of Architecture);
3. Institutes that are multi-discipline oriented;
4. Private Institutions that offer degrees in non-engineering fields such as business, culture, sociology, and religion.
5. Since 1992 Russian higher education has had a multi-level structure and higher education institutions may confer the following degrees and diplomas:
Level 1.It comprises the first four years of studies leads to the Bachelor degree. Following a successful attestation, a State Diploma is issued attesting conferral of the Bachelor degree.
Level 2. It represents an educational level common both to the Master Diploma and to the Specialist Diploma. A Master programme is at least a two-year course programme centered more around research activities than the Specialist Diploma, access to Master studies is open to the holders of the Bachelor degree and each Master programme consists of two almost equal components: the course component and the independent research component. Master studies are completed by a State final attestation including the defence of a dissertation and passing State final examinations.
Level 3. Graduates of higher education institutions with a bent for research work may pursue their education as postgraduates attending educational programmes of postgraduate professional education. The hierarchy of advanced degrees in Russia traditionally includes two-stage system of doctoral degrees: the Candidate of Science (Ph.D. degree) and the Doctor of Science (D.Sc. degree).
Higher educational establishments are headed by Rectors. Prorectors are in charge of academic and scientific work. An institute or a university has a number of faculties, each specializing councils which confer candidate and doctoral degrees.
The Constitution and the Russian Federation Law on Education guarantee open and free access to higher education on a competitive basis. Currently the Certificate of Secondary Complete General Education is required for admission to all kinds of HEIs. Applications are accepted from citizens of both sexes who have completed secondary education and passed a competitive entrance examination. The academic year lasts from September 1 to June everywhere, with long summer vacations from July to August 31. It is divided into two terms. The evaluation of student’s performance is designed in such a way that the progresses of the latter in mastering subjects included in the curriculum are monitored closely and objectively. The number of tests and examinations to be taken during every academic year is strictly formulated by the head of the institutions. Student performance on test is evaluated as “passed” or “failed” and on examinations as “excellent”, “good”, “satisfactory” and “unsatisfactory”. Some HEI have already introduced a system of continuous assessment which helps to evaluate student’s progress during the whole academic year. Students who accumulate a number of arrears in their new academic year would be dismissed from their educational institutions. The final state examinations are also very important part of the higher educational assessment process in Russia. These methodologies constitute a comprehensive evaluation system by which the knowledge and the skills of specialists are brightened and the qualification obtained becomes invaluable and precious.
COMPREHENSIVE CHECK