Constant / round-the-clock shelling

shelling of sth: The shelling of the town continued well into the night. | Shelling of enemy lines continued all day.

shelling begins / breaks out / erupts: Shooting and shelling erupt sporadically from both sides.

to start / begin // resume shelling: The shelling was resumed, and the machine gun finally knocked out by a heavy shell.

20. target [countable] an object, person, or place that is deliberately chosen to be attacked цель; мишень: Any major airport or station is potentially a terrorist target.

target for / of sb / sth: The docks are the main target for the bombing raids. | Foreigners have become targets for attack by terrorists. | The commonly used roads are the targets of heavy fire.

military / civilian target: potential military targets such as air bases and oil fields | The GIA continued its attacks on civilian targets.

ground / aerial target наземная / воздушная цель

to fire / shoot at a target стрелять по цели / в мишень

to hit / strike a target попасть в цель, поразить цель: The Lancasters had to drop the bouncing bomb from precisely sixty feet to hit their target. | I had four shots but I didn't even hit the target.

to miss a target промахнуться, не попасть в цель: The missiles missed their target. | The bomb missed its target by several kilometres. | But the interceptor missed its target in a second test in January.

off target неточно, мимо цели

target area район цели: When the plane gets to the target area, it drops the missile and returns to base.

prime target (of / for sb / sth) a very likely target: These points will form the prime target of an enemy attack. | Railway stations are prime targets for bombs. | Holding a US passport makes these tourists a prime target for terrorists. | These factors, however, made the camps prime targets for enemy attack and bombardment.

21. pinpoint accuracy very exact (очень) высокая точность: The missiles can hit targets with pinpoint accuracy. | The missiles can be fired against enemy targets with pinpoint accuracy. | Radar can locate an underwater target with pinpoint accuracy.

22. casualty | loss [countable; usually plural] someone who is hurt or killed in an accident or military action раненый; убитый; потери (на войне): The bomb caused serious damage to the building, but there were no casualties. | There were no reports of casualties from the attack. | In the fury of the battle casualties on either side were mounting appallingly. | So successful was the tactic that the return fire from the Dragoons passed over their heads without inflicting a single casualty.

casualty rate количество убитых и раненых

death toll количество убитых

casualty list список убитых, раненых и пропавших без вести (на войне): Casualty lists were not published until months after the battle. | The list was so long and detailed it resembled a casualty list following a small battle. | The casualty lists were growing longer and longer.

casualty figures данные о потерях: The respective casualty figures are, as usual, uncertain. | No casualty figures were available, but civilians living near the headquarters fled.

23. loss of life [uncountable] (formal) the deaths of a lot of people in an accident or military action тяжелые потери убитыми; гибель людей: The war has led to a tragic loss of life. | It was decimated by the loss of life incurred by the coup and the civil war. | Needless loss of life resulted from a policy that emphasized backing away from provocation and discouraging self-defence. | Our own little putsch was carried through without loss of life, you remember.

24. casualties | losses COLLOCATIONS

light casualties / losses небольшие / незначительные потери

heavy / serious / substantial / great / large / huge / many casualties тяжелые / серьезные потери: There were heavy casualties in the first battle. | Despite heavy losses, the battalion regrouped and fought on. | It ended with heavy losses to the enemy and, finally, their retreat. | Western diplomats said Mr Yeltsin could yet salvage the situation if he put a quick end to the crisis without huge casualties. | Both sides had what they wanted, and neither wanted to risk large casualties to seize what the other had. | As a result they suffered many casualties. | They're suffering greater casualties, but the outside world doesn't know.

losses in dead and wounded потери убитыми и ранеными

military casualties / losses потери среди военнослужащих: Military casualties on both sides were substantial. | Wars nowadays are fought against civilians; the bulk of military casualties these days are women and children. | A court notice reported the economic loss of the two vehicles, but did not mention any military casualties.

civilian casualties / losses потери среди гражданского населения: A series of air raids resulted in a number of civilian casualties. | Even in the days of precision strikes, attacks from the air would risk civilian casualties. | One outstanding feature of that war was how few civilian casualties there were. | The total number of civilian casualties was seventy-seven, most of whom had suffered bruises or lacerations to the head. | There were no figures given for civilian casualties.

to cause casualties / losses | to inflict casualties / losses (on sb) наносить потери: Troops fired on demonstrators near the Royal Palace causing many casualties. | The action caused 441 military casualties and 197 naval casualties. | Further shelling caused casualties in the trench and destroyed the parapet over a length of fifty yards. | Yet constant raids were causing great losses and hardship. | The rebels claim to have inflicted heavy casualties. | Our forces inflicted heavy casualties / losses on the enemy.

to suffer / sustain / take / incur casualties / losses нести / понести потери: The enemy suffered heavy casualties. | Both the armies suffered heavy losses in the battle. | Indian troops have suffered more than 1200 casualties. | According to some reports, both sides sustained heavy casualties. | B Company had already sustained heavy casualties from the landing and the patrol lost. | Beirut was under constant shelling; the Marines at the airport were taking more casualties. | Increasingly, the Iraqi population was taking casualties rather than foreigners on Iraqi soil. | Most of the civilian casualties were incurred here.

to report casualties / losses сообщать / докладывать о потерях

casualties / losses occur имеют место потери: Unfortunately heavy losses occurred during the First World War with all four being sunk.

Offence and invasion

1. to advance [intransitive] to move towards someone or something, especially in a slow and determined way (used especially to talk about soldiers) наступать; продвигаться вперед

to advance: Villagers hid in the hills as the troops advanced. | Our army has advanced two miles. | A line of US tanks slowly advanced. | The enemy advanced with fixed bayonets.

to advance on sth / against sb наступать (на что-л. / кого-л.): Troops advanced on the rebel stronghold. | Our troops advanced on the next town. | The forces of the enemy advanced against us.

to advance across / through / towards / to a place передвигаться (в определенном направлении): The army advanced across the plain. | In early 1940 the army began to advance across France. | Gorbad advanced towards the city from the east, roughly following the line of the river Aver.

2. to attack [intransitive; transitive] to start using weapons to try to defeat an enemy атаковать, нападать, штурмовать

to attack | to go in: The enemy attacked at dawn. | The enemy attacked treacherously. | They attacked with cavalry but were repulsed. | All the soldiers were ordered to go in and seize the enemy position.

to attack sb / sth: Our troops attacked the enemy. | Guerrillas attacked an army patrol. | Army tanks attacked a village near the capital on Sunday. | US jets attacked five air defence sites in the north. | The village was attacked by the French air force.

3. to storm [transitive] to suddenly attack and enter a place using a lot of force брать приступом, штурмовать; атаковать: The men stormed the fort. | Several dozen rebels stormed the ambassador's residence. | The city was stormed by rebel forces. | Police stormed the building and arrested twelve men.

4. to raid [transitive] to suddenly attack a place and cause a lot of damage совершать внезапное нападение / рейд / налет / набег / вылазку: Vikings raided settlements on the east coast. | The tribe raided a neighbouring village, inflicting many casualties. | In 1943, allied bombers repeatedly raided Hamburg. | The rebels raided the tiny mountain town early on Tuesday.

5. to send in [transitive] to send soldiers, police etc somewhere to deal with a difficult or dangerous situation; to cause soldiers to move into battle направлять (войска); посылать в бой: British troops were sent in as part of the peacekeeping force. | UN troops were sent in as the situation got worse. | Government forces were sent in to fight the rebellion. | He has asked the government to send in troops to end the fighting. | The attack is not succeeding well; we shall have to send in more men.

6. to strike [intransitive; transitive] to attack someone or something, especially suddenly атаковать, наносить удар

to strike (at / against sth): Fighter bombers struck at the presidential palace. | We will use these air bases to strike against the northern territories. | Terrorists were able to strike in one country and then flee to another. | The killer says he will strike again.

to strike sth: Guerrillas struck a U.N. camp, killing 75. | Opponents of the war say that civilian villages have been struck several times.

7. to hit (1) [transitive] to attack something or wound someone with a bomb, bullet etc; if something such as a bullet or bomb hits something or someone, it lands on them попадать в цель: The bomb failed to hit its target. | None of the missiles hit their target. | Although of limited accuracy by modern standards, the Scuds were reasonably successful at hitting large targets such as urban settlements. | According to first reports, some bombs have hit schools and hospitals. | A second shot hit her in the back. | Our ship was badly hit and sank within minutes.

(2) [transitive; intransitive] to attack someone suddenly нападать, атаковать: The convoy was hit by Afghan government troops.

8. advance [countable] a forward movement towards someone or something (used especially to talk about soldiers) наступление: The defences are intended to obstruct any advance by tanks and other vehicles.

advance on sth / against sb наступление (на кого-л. / что-л.): The rebels continued their advance on the capital city. | In an exercise designed to be as real as possible, they simulated an advance on enemy positions.

advance across / through / towards / to a place передвижение (в определенном направлении): That there was some reorganization at this point, before the final advance towards enemy country, seems not unreasonable.

to make / press an advance проводить наступление: Our troops made an advance against the enemy.

9. attack [countable; uncountable] the act of using weapons against an enemy in a war; an organized attempt to defeat an enemy, using weapons атака, наступление; наступательный бой; нападение: a bitter / blistering / savage / scathing / sharp / violent / scurrilous / vicious / unprovoked / wanton attack | the threat of nuclear attack | Attack is said to be the best form of defence. | The attack began at dawn. | A security fence, with watchtowers, protects the base against attack by ground forces. | These bomb blasts suggest that the terrorists are going on the attack again.

attack on / against sb / sth: a campaign of air attacks on strategic targets | This was the possibility of a sneak enemy air attack on Tokyo, the capital of the Empire.

to launch / mount an attack | to go into attack начинать атаку, предпринимать атаку, идти в атаку: Rebel forces launched an attack late Sunday night. | No world leader would try to launch a surprise attack because the response would be terminal for his own nation. | Grant launched an all-out attack on these defences during the gusty, rainy, and misty dawn of May 12. | We mounted a surprise attack against their ammunition depot.

to make / carry out / press an attack наступать, идти в наступление: Enemy forces have made an attack on the city.

to withstand / hold out against / ride out an attack сдержать наступление, устоять: The clincher was Haig's assurance that he could withstand any German attack for at least eighteen days. | The aircraft base is protected with specially designed shelters which are built to withstand ground and air attacks. | It was also important to demonstrate the ability of nuclear forces to ride out a surprise attack.

to repel / repulse / drive back / drive off / counter / fight off an attack отражать атаку / нападение: Troops have been deployed in the area to counter a possible attack.

to resume / renew an attack возобновлять наступление / атаку: Burnside wanted to renew the attack in the morning. | Government forces renewed their attacks on a key communications tower. | They renew the attack from another side.

to be / come under attack подвергаться нападению: There were no trains and the roads were under constant air attack. | The enemy came under attack. | Once again we came under attack from enemy fighter planes. | Refugees came under attack from federal troops.

an attack occurs: The air attack occurred in August 1988 during a campaign against the Kurdish separatist movement.

surprise attack внезапная атака: By the mid-1960s fears had eased of a technological arms race that might encourage either side to unleash a surprise attack. | This would increase the warning time of any possible surprise attack.

all-out attack решительное наступление: Our forces launched an all-out attack against the enemy.

full-scale attack наступление по всем направлениям, всеобъемлющее наступление

air / nuclear / missile / bomb / mortar attack: It is becoming apparent that air attacks alone are not likely to win the war. | In any case the vast base was vulnerable to nuclear attack. | Nor will such a network of battle stations immediately end the threat of nuclear attack. | Consequently, they might remove the base, thereby removing the reason for a nuclear attack. | Gates warned that Hussein probably expects another cruise missile attack. | From June 1944 the flying bomb attacks were less concentrated spatially, but even more destructive.

10. offensive [countable] a planned military attack involving large forces over a long period наступление, наступательная операция: There has already been artillery fire, and many expect a new offensive in the coming weeks. | Exactly as had happened the year before, the major offensive was preceded by a significant upswing in fighting.

military / nuclear / air offensive: The great military offensive had failed, and it seemed victory was escaping them.

offensive on / against sb: The President announced an offensive on the rebels. | Its latest military offensive against rebel forces is aimed at re-opening important trade routes.

to be on the offensive to be ready to attack (быть в готовности) наступать: In the view of many analysts here, they did not have to create the impression that they are on the offensive.

to launch / mount an offensive предпринять / начать наступление: The army is about to launch a major offensive. | Government troops launched an offensive against UNITA positions in the north. | The government offensive was only part of a broader offensive launched against rebel forces in late 1991. | The armed forces have launched offensives to recapture lost ground.

to take / go on the offensive to begin to take strong action against people who have been attacking you перейти в наступление: The international coalition was ready to take the offensive. | The enemy open fire with even greater fury than before, and again take the offensive. | The West African forces went on the offensive in response to attacks on them.

to carry out an offensive проводить наступление

to break off an offensive прекращать наступление

to resume / renew an offensive возобновлять наступление

an offensive begins / starts / resumes наступление начинается / возобновляется: Before the offensive began he had tried in vain to impress this upon his superiors. | The rebel offensive resumed on Thursday, leaving 12 dead and many injured.

11. offence [uncountable] (formal) the act of attacking нападение; наступление: They say that the most effective defence is offence. | It depends on whether it was used as a weapon of offence or defence.

12. assault [countable; uncountable] a violent military attack to take control of a place controlled by the enemy нападение; атака, приступ, штурм: The enemy's positions were taken by assault. | Most US soldiers welcomed the ground assault when the order was finally given.

assault on sb / sth: Only a successful assault on the rebels' headquarters could have ended the civil war. | The Combined Fleet made plans for an assault on Midway Island. | The rebels are poised for a new assault on the government garrisons.

to launch / mount an assault начинать атаку / штурм, предпринимать атаку / штурм, идти в атаку / на штурм: They launched an assault on the capital yesterday. | Thirty policemen were massacred in Rukum last week when the rebels launched a direct assault on their heavily fortified headquarters. | The police mounted an early-morning assault on his office, and Mr Bucaram came running out with his hands up.

to make / carry out an assault (on sth.) атаковать, штурмовать: They made an assault on the enemy's positions.

to lead an assault возглавить атаку / штурм: On the final day when Anlec fell Mentheus was killed as he led the assault. | I should persuade the King to change his mind, and let Messer Niccolò lead an assault.

to be / come under assault подвергаться нападению: The refugee camp came under assault again last night.

13. onslaught [countable] a very powerful and violent attack атака, нападение: The city was in ruins after a prolonged onslaught by enemy warplanes.

onslaught on / against sb / sth: In 508 Theuderic continued his father's onslaught on the Gothic south, in tandem with the Burgundians. | The rebels responded to a military onslaught against them by launching a major assault on an army camp.

to launch an onslaught начинать атаку, предпринимать атаку, идти в атаку: In December they launched a full-scale onslaught on the capital. | In 471 Euric launched his first onslaught against Clermont.

to withstand / hold out against / ride out an onslaught сдержать атаку, устоять: He was confident his armies could withstand the Allied onslaught. | It is unlikely that his forces could withstand an allied onslaught for very long.

14. raid [countable] a short sudden attack on a place by soldiers, planes, or ships, intended to cause damage but not take control внезапное нападение; рейд; воздушный налет; вторжение; вылазка, набег: an air / bombing / border / cross-border / guerrilla / retaliatory raid | a raid into enemy territory

raid on / against sb / sth: The rebels attempted a surprise raid on a military camp. | They planned a surprise, early-morning raid on the naval base. | Its planes are carrying out heavy bombing raids against the guerrillas.

to launch / make / carry out / stage a raid совершить рейд: The commandos launched / made / carried out / staged a daring raid (on the enemy). | The army launched several cross-border raids last night. | Aircraft are carrying out raids on enemy ships. | Soldiers carried out raids on enemy targets in the area.

to lead a raid возглавлять рейд: The colonel led a successful raid against a rebel base. | He led a commando raid in the desert.

to repel a raid отражать внезапное нападение: The city was fortified and was able to repel raids by pirates and a siege by the Saracens in 866-7.

air / bombing raid: He was killed in an air raid. | The United States reacted to the air raids by ordering an aircraft carrier to the gulf. | The air raids were becoming heavier and more frequent.

15. foray [countable] a short sudden attack by a group of soldiers, especially in order to get food or supplies внезапное нападение; вылазка, набег

to make a foray (into a particular place): The soldiers made nightly forays into enemy territory. | King Godfred made extensive forays into Frisia, and subdued the Abotrites and Wiltzes.

16. strike [countable] a sudden brief military attack, especially by missiles or planes dropping bombs удар: a first / second / surgical strike

strike against / on sb / sth: There were further air strikes the next day against Hezbollah positions in the southern Bekaa valley. | The violence is unlikely to stop without military strikes against terrorist bases. | Cluster bombs were used in the strike on the airfield.

to launch / carry out a strike наносить удар: American aircraft carriers launched several strikes (against the enemy). | Bush warned that America would launch strikes against them if the war spread.

pre-emptive strike упреждающий удар (ядерное нападение, опережающее удар противника): We have no intention of launching a pre-emptive strike, but we will retaliate if provoked.

air / nuclear strike: Joyce was informing his listeners of a massive air strike by Luftwaffe bombers against the Kent coast. | The terrain was rough and offered ideal cover from air strikes and surveillance. | When we decided we had them pinned down, they called in an air strike. | The United Nations has authorized the use of air strikes. | Would you support a nuclear strike to bring an end to a war?

17. raiding party a group taking part in an attack: Then, he fears, in will come the helicopters with their raiding parties, hit men and explosives squads.

18. offensive (adjective) [only before noun] used for attacking наступательный, наступающий: Government troops took up offensive positions. | He appealed to Khrushchev to remove the offensive weapons under United Nations supervision.

offensive war / warfare наступательные военные действия; наступательная война

19. to conquer [transitive; intransitive] to get control of a country by force; to defeat an enemy завоевывать, покорять; подчинять; порабощать

to conquer sth / sb: The Normans conquered England in 1066. | Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, which we know today as France. | The Zulus conquered all the neighbouring tribes.

to conquer: Sailors travelled to the New World with the urge to conquer and explore.

20. to invade | to occupy [transitive; intransitive] to enter a country, town, or area using military force in order to take control of it вторгаться; захватывать, оккупировать

to invade / occupy sth: Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. | The Romans invaded Britain 2000 years ago. | Can a country legally invade another country that has not used military force against it? | The region was quickly occupied by foreign troops. | Alexandretta was occupied by the French in 1918 after the defeat of Turkey.

to invade: Enemy forces were almost certainly preparing to invade. | Concentrations of troops near the border look set to invade within the next few days. | They received information that the Americans were preparing to invade.

21. to occupy [transitive] to be in control of a place that you have entered in a group using military force оккупировать: an occupying army | U.S. forces now occupy a part of the country. | Between 1914 and 1920 large parts of Albania were occupied by the Italians.

22. conquest (1) [uncountable; countable] the act of getting control of a country by force завоевание, покорение; подчинение; порабощение: History is the story of conquest. | Jerusalem has seen endless conquests and occupations. | The Roman legions left, opening the way for the conquest of the British Isles by the Germanic tribes. | In this first phase of conquest, the Arabs created an Empire and a State, but not yet a civilization.

(2) [countable – usually plural] the land or people that another country has taken control of by force завоевания (земли, народы, имущество и т. д.): His conquests transformed the ancient world and ushered in the Hellenistic age of great monarchies. | First campaigns among the many achievements of Charles, the most obvious is the extent of his military conquests. | He realized that Britain could not have peace unless she returned at least some of her former conquests.

23. invasion | occupation [uncountable; countable] an occasion when the army of one country enters another country by force, in order to take control of it вторжение; нашествие, агрессия; захват, оккупация; набег: The invasion was condemned as 'blatant aggression' by the British Prime Minister. | The importance of these functions was enhanced by the barbarian invasions of the fifth century. | They were to remain in these positions for seven days after the occupation of Midway unless the enemy attacked sooner. | Jerusalem has seen endless conquests and occupations. | Prii became fluent in German during the Wehrmacht's occupation of Estonia in 1942.

invasion / occupation of sth: Some analysts fear that increasing desperation could lead to a military invasion of the country's southern neighbours. | He was commander in chief during the invasion of Panama.

invasion / occupation by sb: The fear of an invasion by rebels is always present. | The Pantheon has survived many vicissitudes; first the barbarian invasions and later the despoliation by the Catholic Church.

to order an invasion (of sth): He refused all attempts to force him to order an invasion of Naggaroth.

to launch / mount / carry out an invasion (of / into sth) совершить вторжение / агрессию: First he launches an invasion without adequate air support, then he makes the movement pay for it. | They were planning to mount an invasion of the north of the country. | The rebels launched their invasion into the Mutara region in the north.

to repel / repulse / counter an invasion отразить нашествие / агрессию: Then two mighty heroes, the twin brothers Tyrion and Teclis, arose to succour the realm and repel the invasion. | The reserve takes in part of the Minsmere levels which were flooded during the Second World War to counter possible invasion.

an invasion occurs происходит / имеет место агрессия / захват / оккупация: In 517 a major invasion occurred when Slav horsemen advanced as far as Thermopylae and Epirus.

invasion / occupation force(s): The government fell nine days after an invasion force of five thousand troops was said to be advancing on the capital. | Preparations for the Normandy landings took place here because the terrain is similar to that which faced the Allied invasion forces.

under occupation controlled by a foreign army: The area is under occupation. | New Delhi need do no more than keep Kashmir under military occupation and keep the lid on guerrilla warfare.

24. conqueror [countable] someone who has taken control of a country or its people by force завоеватель; победитель: The people of an oppressed country obey their conquerors because they want to go on living.

25. invader [countable] a soldier or a group of soldiers that enters a country, town, or area by force in order to take control of it захватчик, оккупант: Invaders from the south ransacked the town. | The foreign invaders were finally defeated by allied forces. | The invaders were only finally crushed when troops overcame them at Glenshiel in June 1719.

Defence

1. to defend [transitive; intransitive] to protect someone or something from attack защищать(ся) стоять на страже

to defend something (against / from something): Thousands of young men came forward, willing to defend their country. | They needed more troops to defend the border against / from possible attack. | They defended their country against their enemies. | The castle was built in 1549 to defend the island against invaders. | The arsenal ship would have relied on other warships to defend it against missile attacks.

to defend against: We need to defend against military aggression.

2. to be on the defensive to be in a state or position of defence обороняться, защищаться

3. to resist [transitive; intransitive] to oppose or fight against someone or something сопротивляться, оказывать сопротивление; противостоять; отбивать, отбрасывать: The soldiers resisted (the enemy attacks) for two days. | The city resisted the enemy onslaught for two weeks. | When security guards came to stop him, he did not resist.

4. to withstand [transitive] (1) to be strong enough not to be harmed or destroyed by something устоять, выдержать: The city's defences were not strong enough to withstand the attack. | Armoured vehicles are designed to withstand chemical attack. | The bunker is designed to withstand a nuclear blast. | The aircraft base is protected with specially designed shelters which are built to withstand ground and air attacks.

(2) to defend oneself successfully against people who attack you выдержать, противостоять: to withstand an attack / assault / siege

5. to repel | to repulse(formal)| to drive back / off | fight off [transitive] to force someone who is attacking you to move back or stop attacking отбрасывать (противника), отражать / отбивать (атаку, нападение): The army was ready to repel an attack. | The defenders repelled the attack without losing any men. | Using water cannons and tear gas, police repelled protesters outside the US embassy. | Government troops repulsed an attack by rebel forces. | The enemy have been driven back in all parts of the battle. | The army drove off the enemy with much effort and loss of life. | The government said it drove the guerrillas off with infantry and air strikes. | The two fighters were driven off by a barrage of anti-aircraft fire.

6. to hold out [intransitive] to continue to successfully defend a place that is being attacked держаться; не сдаваться: The rebels held out for another night but then fresh forces arrived. | They won't be able to hold out much longer under this sort of bombardment. | In those impregnable mountains, the guerrillas could hold out for years.

7. to retaliate [intransitive] to do something bad to someone because they have done something bad to you отвечать (на агрессию), наносить ответный удар; мстить, осуществлять меры возмездия

to retaliate (against sb / sth) (for sth): We have no intention of launching a pre-emptive strike, but we will retaliate if provoked. | They retaliated against the enemy for shelling civilian targets. | They have threatened to retaliate against the US for the bombing raid. | The militia responded by saying it would retaliate against any attacks. | The terrorists retaliated against the government with a bomb attack.

to retaliate with sth: Continuing deterrent credibility would, in future, depend upon Britain's known ability to retaliate with an invulnerable Second Strike weapon. | Loyalists retaliated with the gun attack on a bookmaker's office at Ormeau Road, Belfast.

to retaliate by doing sth: Sigibert retaliated by calling in his allies from across the Rhine. | When the police started to arrest people, some of the demonstrators retaliated by throwing stones. | The demonstrators threw rocks at the police, who retaliated by firing blanks into the crowd. | The British government retaliated by breaking off diplomatic relations.

8. to break through (sth) [transitive; intransitive] to manage to get past or through something that is in your way прорваться, пробиться: At dawn 300 tanks prepared to break through the enemy lines / the enemy's defences. | They finally broke through the German line. | The demonstrators broke through heavy police barriers. | The enemy's defences were strong but our soldiers broke through. | After hours of fierce fighting, rebels broke through and captured the capital. | About fifteen inmates broke through onto the roof.

9. to besiege [transitive] to surround a place, especially with an army, and try to gain control of it or force someone to come out of it блокировать, окружать; осаждать: A massive Roman army besieged Jerusalem, utterly destroying the Temple and razing the city to the ground. | The main part of the army moved to Sevastopol to besiege the town. | The town had been besieged for two months but still resisted the aggressors.

10. to blockade [transitive] to surround an area by soldiers or ships to stop people or supplies leaving or entering блокировать: The ships blockaded the port. | In June 1948 the Russians blockaded the western sectors of Berlin.

11. to withdraw | to pull out | to pull back [intransitive; transitive] if an army withdraws / pulls out or is withdrawn / pulled out, it leaves a place отходить, отступать; отводить / выводить войска

to withdraw / pull back (from / to a particular place): He stated that all foreign forces would withdraw as soon as the crisis ended. | Our troops have withdrawn from the border area / to a safer area. | The troops began to withdraw from the northern region. | They were asked to pull back from their artillery positions around the city.

to pull out (of a particular place): Economic sanctions will be lifted once two-thirds of their forces have pulled out. | Troops began pulling out of the region as soon as the order was given. | British forces will pull out of the troubled area as quickly as possible.

to withdraw sb (from / to a particular place) | to pull sb back (from / to a particular place): Both countries agreed to withdraw their troops. | They withdrew their troops from an exposed position. | The UN has withdraw its troops from the country. | At nightfall Thomas withdrew his troops to Rossville, and the two-day battle was over. | We decided to pull back our forces and try to advance again tomorrow. | He pulled back forces from Mongolia, and he withdrew from Afghanistan.

to pull sb out (of a particular place): Most of the troops have been pulled out. | Troops are being pulled out of these troubled areas. | After many years of fighting, the soldiers were pulled out of the battle area. | British forces will be pulled out of the troubled area as quickly as possible.

12. defence [uncountable] all the systems, people, materials etc that a country uses to protect itself from the system of weapons, equipment, and people that is used to protect a country оборона: The defence industry relies heavily on sales of weapons to foreign countries. | Huge amounts of government money are spent on defence.