Ex. 7. Develop the following sentences.
CONTENTS
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 3
Solicitors. 3
Barristers. 7
Magistrates, Judges and other legal professions. 12
THE COURT SYSTEM OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 17
THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE USA.. 24
LAWMAKING PROCESS IN GREAT BRITAIN.. 30
LAWMAKING PROCESS IN THE USA.. 35
INSURANCE. 39
FACTORY PRODUCTION.. 46
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES
Solicitors
List of words
Read and learn the words
| to advise | советовать |
| an agent | представитель; доверенное лицо |
| a case | судебное дело; случай, прецедент |
| a clerk | клерк ,солиситор-практикант |
| a client | клиент |
| to deal with something | иметь дело с |
| defense | защита |
| to include | включать в себя, содержать в себе |
| to increase | возрастать, увеличиваться; расти |
| litigation | тяжба; судебный процесс |
| to pass an exam | сдать экзамен |
| to prepare | готовить, подготавливать |
| to qualify | получать какую-л. профессию |
| a solicitor | солиситор, стряпчий |
| a will | завещание |
| to work on something | работать над чем-либо |
Ex. 1. Make up word combinations by matching the word from A with its best association from B and translate them.
| A | B |
| 1. to make | a) on cases |
| 2. agents for | b) as a solicitor |
| 3. to increase | c) legal documents |
| 4. to prepare | d) a will |
| 5. to pass | e) an exam |
| 6. to work | f) rapidly |
| 7. to qualify | g) litigation |
Ex.2. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1. a client | a) an action or suit at law |
| 2. a will | b) the action of protecting oneself |
| 3. a case | c) a person who acts on behalf of another person |
| 4. defense | d) the declaration of a person's wishes regarding his or her property after death |
| 5. an agent | e) a person, company, etc., that seeks the advice of a professional man or woman |
Ex.3. Think of your own sentences with the following word combinations.
To work on court cases, to deal with all the day-to day work, act in all courts as the agents for litigation, to give advice, to make a will, to appear as advocates in lower courts, to get into trouble; to prepare legal documents, to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk”, to pass the Law Society exams.
Ex.4. Read the text.
Solicitors
England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with separate jobs in the legal system. The two kinds of lawyers are solicitors and barristers.
If a person has a problem, he will go and see a solicitor. Solicitors can be found everywhere. There are about 50000 solicitors in Britain. Solicitors make up the largest branch of legal professions in England.
Solicitor is a type of practicing lawyer in Britain. Solicitors work on court cases and deal with all the day-to day work. Solicitors give advice, do the necessary work when property is bought or sold. If one wants to make a will the person to advise him is a solicitor. If one gets into trouble with the police one can ask a solicitor to help prepare legal document for his defense.
Solicitors have a right to act in all courts as the agents for litigation or representatives of their clients, but they may appear as advocates only in lower courts. Solicitors can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts. In the County Court the solicitor wears a black gown over his ordinary clothes.
The education required of a solicitor includes a law school course. To qualify as a solicitor one is to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk” and to work for him for a period of five years (three years for university graduated) in order to pass the Law Society exams. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens (The Commonwealth is an organization of about 50 countries that were part of the British Empire).
Ex. 5. Answer the questions.
1. How many solicitors are there in Great Britain?
2. Do solicitors make the smallest branch of legal professions in England?
3. Where can you find a solicitor?
4. What do solicitors do?
5. May solicitors appear as advocates in higher courts?
6. Where can a solicitor appear as a lawyer?
7. What cases can a solicitor represent in a court?
8. What education do solicitors need?
9. How long do solicitors work as “clerks”?
10. What exam do solicitors pass?
11. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens, mustn’t they?
Ex.6. Decide if the following statements are True or False.
1. There are about 30000solicitors in Great Britain.
2. Solicitors make the smallest branch of legal professions in England
3. Solicitors are found only in big cities.
4. Solicitors work on court cases and deal with all the day-to day work.
5. Solicitors represent clients in the higher court.
6. Solicitors give advice and do not do the necessary work when property is bought or sold.
7. If one gets into trouble with the police one can ask a solicitor to help prepare legal document for his defense.
8. Solicitors do not have a right to act in all courts as the agents for litigation or representatives of their clients.
9. Solicitors represent divorce cases in the High Court.
10. The education required of a solicitor includes a secondary school course.
11. To qualify as a solicitor one is to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk” and to work for him forever.
12. Solicitors pass the Law Society exams.
13. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens.
Barristers
List of words.
Read and learn the words.
| to accept a case | принимать, брать; соглашаться |
| apprenticeship | учение; ученичество |
| a barrister | адвокат, барристер |
| to carry on | продолжать, заниматься |
| to defend | защищать на суде |
| to engage in | заниматься чем-л. |
| fee | вознаграждение, гонорар |
| a gown | мантия |
| higher court | суд вышестоящей инстанции |
| Inns of Court | "Судебные инны" (четыре английские школы подготовки барристеров) |
| to preside | председательствовать |
| proceedings | иск, обращение за судебной помощью |
| to prosecute | преследовать в судебном или уголовном порядке |
| QC (Queen's Counsel) | королевский адвокат |
| to be responsible for | быть ответственным за |
| to specialize in | специализироваться |
| a wig | парик |
Ex. 1. Make up word combinations by matching the word from A with its best association from B and translate them.
| A | B |
| 1. to engage | a) in advocacy |
| 2. to advise on | b) wigs and gowns |
| 3. to accept | c) a case |
| 4. to wear | d) apprenticeship |
| 5. to serve | e) difficult points |
| 6. to carry | f) on business |
Ex.2. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1. a wig | a) an artificial head of hair |
| 2. apprenticeship | b) an elegant or formal dress |
| 3. a fee | c) a payment asked by professional people |
| 4. a gown | d) the four private societies in London |
| 5. Inns of Court | e) being a student |
Ex.3. Read the text
Barristers
Barrister is one of the two types of practicing lawyers in England, the other is the solicitor. There are about 5000 barristers in England and Wales. In general, barristers engage in advocacy and solicitors deal with office work.
Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law. Barristers advise on really difficult points. Only barristers may appear as advocates before the High Court. In the court barristers wear wigs and gowns.
Barristers are rather untouchable figures. If you need one, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in what is known as chambers, often in London. To be a barrister it is necessary to be a member of one of four Inns of Court in London. Inns of Court are four institutions that are historically responsible for legal education.
A prospective barrister must pass some examinations established for the Inns by the Council of Legal Education and must read law and serve his apprenticeship with a practicing barrister for not less than a year. The highest level of barristers has the title QC.
A barrister is required to accept any case for a proper professional fee. A good barrister can earn 30000 pounds a year. Only barristers can become judges in an English Court above a Magistrates’ Court. Barristers can not carry on any other profession or business.
Barristers are also found in South Africa and New South West (Australia).
Magistrates
In Britain, the vast majority of judges (that is, people who decide what should be done with people who commit crimes) are unpaid. They are called “Magistrates”, or “Justices of the Peace” or JPs.
There are about 30000 magistrates in Britain. They are ordinary people who are selected not because they have any legal training but because they have “sound common sense” and understand their fellow human beings. Magistrates are selected by special committees in every town and district. Nobody, not even the Magistrates themselves, knows who is on a special committee in their area. The committee tries to draw Magistrates from as wide a variety of professions and social classes as possible.
Magistrates judge cases in the lower courts. They have no formal legal qualifications, but they are respectable people who are given some training. They give up time voluntarily.
Judges
A small proportion of judges are not Magistrates. They are called “High Court Judges” and they deal with the most serious crimes, such as those for which the criminal might be sent to prison for more than a year. High Court Judges, unlike Magistrates, are paid salaries by the State and have legal training.
There is no special training for judges. They are trained as barristers and preside in more serious cases.
Coroners
Coroners have medical or legal training (or both), and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths
Clerks of the Court
Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.
Jury
A jury consists of twelve people (“jurors”), who are ordinary people chosen at random from the Electoral Register (the list of people who can vote in elections). The jury listen to the evidence given in court in certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. If the person is found guilty, the punishment is passed by the presiding judge. Juries are rarely used in civil cases.
Ex. 3. Put the words in the questions in the correct word order and answer them.
1. How magistrates many there are in Great Britain?
2. Magistrates do any legal training have?
3. Who magistrates selects?
4. Does Magistrates draw from wide a committee the variety of professions?
5. Are unpaid Magistrates?
6. Magistrates cases they lower judge, don’t in the courts.
7. Judges do what deal with?
8. Judges are by the State paid salaries?
9. Judges trained as barristers are?
10. Judges do legal training have?
11. Coroners into violent inquire or do unnatural deaths?
12. Who after administrative looks and legal courtroom matters in the?
13. A jury does of people consist twelve?
14. What duties of are the a jury?
Ex. 4. Decide if the following statements are True or False:
1. In Britain the vast majority of magistrates are paid.
2. Magistrates have some legal training but they have no “sound common sense”.
3. Magistrates judge cases in the lower courts.
4. Magistrates give up time voluntarily.
5. A small proportion of judges are not Magistrates.
6. High Court Judges deal with the petty crimes.
7. High Court Judges have legal training.
8. They are trained as solicitors and preside in more serious cases.
9. Coroners have either medical or legal training.
10. Coroners inquire into natural deaths.
11. Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the living room.
12. A jury consists of eleven people.
13. The jury listens to the evidence given in court.
14. The jury decides whether the defendant is guilty or innocent.
15. Juries are often used in civil cases
Ex.5. Develop the sentences:
1. Magistrates are…
2. Magistrates deal with…
3. Magistrates judge…
4. Judges are…
5. Judges have…
6. Coroners have…
7. Clerks deal with…
8. A jury consists of…
9. A jury may be…
Ex. 6. Make a list of duties of judges, magistrates, coroners, clerks and jurors.
Ex.7. Compare the duties of judges and magistrates. Find similarities and differences in their duties, using the following connectors:
alike
both
neither …..nor
similar to
dissimilar to
different from
Ex. 8. Role play the dialogues.
A:You are a school-leaver and don’t know what to be. Ask your relatives about the duties of legal eagles.
BYou are a parent of a school-leaver. Advice your child on the choice: to be a judge.
C You are a parent of a school-leaver. Advice your child on the choice: to be a coroner
D You are a parent of a school-leaver. Advice your child on the choice: to be a solicitor
THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE USA
List of words
Read the words and learn them:
| appellate court | аппеляционный суд |
| to coexist | сосуществовать |
| complex | сложный, составной |
| district court | окружной суд |
| exception | исключение |
| federal court | федеральный суд |
| identical | тождественный |
| individual | частное лицо |
| jurisdiction | юрисдикция |
| litigation | судебное разбирательство, тяжба |
| majority | большинство |
| to resolve | разрешать |
| state court | суд штата |
| to sue | преследовать судебным порядком |
| Supreme court | Верховный суд |
| tier | ярус,ряд |
Ex.1. Complete the phrase by matching the words from A with its best association from B. Translate the phrases.
| A | B |
| 1. to run | a) cases |
| 2. to fall | b) its own system |
| 3. to be sued | c) in tiers |
| 4. to depend on | d) in either system |
| 5. to be organized | e) the case |
| 6. to review | f) under jurisdiction |
Ex. 2. Match the words with their definitions:
| 1. Court | a) The process of proceeding against someone in a court |
| 2. Litigation | b) A system that is organized in different levels |
| 3. Jurisdiction | c) The place where a trial is held |
| 4. Sue | d) The power of a court to hear and decide a case |
| 5. Judge | e) A formal request to a court or to someone in authority asking for a decision to be changed |
| 6. Appeal | f) To take legal action against someone in a civil case |
| 7. Case | g) A person with authority to hear and decide disputes brought before a court |
| 8. Pyramid | h) A question or problem that will be dealt with by a law court |
Ex.3. Match the words with their synonyms:
| 1. Identical | a) To settle |
| 2. Complex | b) Level ( Layer) |
| 3. To resolve | c) Similar |
| 4. Tier | d) Apex |
| 5. Top | e) To start |
| 6. Claim | f) Complicated |
| 7. To begin | g) An action |
Ex. 4. Fill in the gaps with appropriate prepositions:
To be part…; … addition; coexist…; to fall… the jurisdiction; to sue… either system; depend… the case; to be resolved… the state court; … the bottom; … the middle; … the top; to take a case… a higher court; to be decided… lower courts; to be known… generalists.
Ex.5. Translate the following phrases into Russian and use them in the sentences of your own.
To be complex; to function as part of the system; to be identical; national government; federal courts; coexist; state courts; to fall under the jurisdiction; to sue; to depend on the case; the vast majority; to resolve the case; to be organized in tiers; at the bottom; the US district courts; to begin litigation, the US Supreme Court, to take a case to a higher court, to review cases, a wide array of cases.
Ex. 6. Render the following sentences into English:
1. В Америке система судебных органов подразделяется на федеральную судебную систему и судебную систему штата.
2. Верховный Суд может пересматривать решения суда штата.
3. Частные лица подпадают под юрисдикцию двух разных судебных систем.
4. Большинство дел разрешаются в судах штата.
5. По своей структуре федеральные суды напоминают пирамиду, у основания которой находятся окружные суды.
6. Аппелировать означает подать иск в высший суд.
7. Верховный Суд является судом последней инстанции.
Ex.7. Read the text and translate it into Russian
INSURANCE
List of words
Read the words and learn them:
| to accept | принимать, брать; соглашаться |
| on smb’s behalf | от лица, от имени (кого-л.) |
| to capture | захватывать, брать в плен |
| claim | требование; претензия; притязание |
| to club together | собираться вместе |
| earnings | заработок |
| to enforce | принуждать, вынуждать (к чему-л). |
| fund | фонд, капитал |
| to hold back | воздерживаться, удерживаться |
| indemnity | гарантия от убытков, потерь |
| insurance policy | страховой полис |
| insurer | страховая компания, страховое общество, страховщик |
| liability | обязательство, ответственность |
| life assurance | страхование жизни |
| loss | потеря, лишение |
| pirate | пират, морской разбойник |
| profit | выгода, полезность, прибыль |
| ransom | выкуп |
| to retire | уходить в отставку, на пенсию |
Ex.1 Complete the phrase by matching the words from A with its best association from B. Translate the phrases.
| A | B |
| 1. to suffer | a) ransom |
| 2. to pay | b) losses |
| 3. to gain | c) profit |
| 4. to hold back | d) liability |
| 5. to escape from | e) information |
Ex. 2. Match the words with their definitions:
| 1. complete honesty | a) a principle used in insurance contracts, legally obliging all parties to reveal to the others any information that might influence the others' decision to enter into the contract; |
| 2. utmost good faith | b) absolute integrity and sincerity; |
| 3. insurable interest | c) a financial or other interest in the life or property covered by an insurance contract, without which the contract cannot be enforced; |
| 4. indemnity | d) the statistically determined average number of years of life remaining after a specified age for a given group of individuals; |
| 5. life expectancy | e) compensation for loss or damage. |
Ex. 3. Fill in the gaps with appropriate prepositions:
1. Insurance has existed, ___ one form or another, ___ thousands ___ years.
2. Part of their earnings went ___ fund ___ their behalf.
3. In the days when pirates used to attack ships ___ sea.
4. The insurance contract is going to be enforced ____ the insurer.
5. The insurer has held ____ some information.
6. It depends ___ the age ___ the person, how healthy he or she is.
Ex. 4. Translate the following phrases into Russian and use them in the sentences of your own.
a) Insurance , earnings on smb’s behalf retired from the army, they were given this money to help them start a new career, to retire, pirates, to attack ships at sea, to club together by putting money into a fund, to be captured, to pay ransom.
b) Complete honesty, to be enforced against the insurer, .to affect the willingness of the insurer, to accept the risk, to escape from liability, utmost good faith, insurable interest, indemnity.
c) Many types of insurances, life assurance, to calculate the probability of death, life expectancy, the more likely person is to die, to be expected to pay into the fund, the fixed amount, scheme.
Ex. 5. Restore the word order in the sentences.
1. Insurance for existed thousands has of years.
2. part of earnings of soldiers fund their Roman went into on behalf.
3. If they this money killed then in were given to battle was their families.
4. Gradually principles insurance the were basic of growing.
5. honesty Complete is essential.
6. one of the Utmost good of insurance faith is principles.
7. fundamental rule Another is insurable interest.
8. indemnity of insurance is Another axiom.
9. there are Nowadays many of insurances types.
10. assurance is type of widespread insurances Life the most.
Ex. 6. Find out which definition on the right matches which word on the left.
| 1. premium | a) A person who advises on insurance |
| 2. underwriter | b) A document which proves you are insured |
| 3. insurance | c) Payment for insurance company |
| 4. broker | d) Insurance protection |
| 5. claim | e) A form you will fill in when you apply for insurance |
| 6. compensation | f) An insurer at Lloyd’s of London |
| 7. small print | g) A limited liability company |
| 8. policy/insurance | h) The conditions and clauses in a document of insurance, usually in small writing |
| 9. proposal form | i) You are paid when insured property is damaged |
| 10. cover | j) A request for payment when your insured property is damaged |
Ex. 7. Decide which word goes in which gap in the passage below.
Mr. Bean wanted to insure his shop. He wanted1...............against fire and theft. He filled in the2..............and sent it to his3...............who arranged the insurance with an4.............. . Mr. Bean had to pay quite a high5...............each year, but it was worth it because a lot of goods were stolen. Mr. Bean put in a6...............for7.............. . Unfortunately, the8...............refused to pay him the full amount. Mr. Bean had not read the9..............in his10...............properly.
Ex. 8. Read the text and translate it into Russian:
Insurance has existed, in one form or another, for thousands of years. When Roman soldiers were paid, part of their earnings went into fund on their behalf. If they were killed in battle then this money was given to their families. Or, if they were retired from the army, they were given this money to help them start a new career.
In the days when pirates used to attack ships at sea, many sea captains used to club together by putting money into a fund. Then when one of these captains was captured, money from the fund was used to pay his ransom.
Gradually, over centuries, the basic principles of insurance were growing.
Complete honesty is essential if the insurance contract is going to be enforced against the insurer. If the insurer has held back any information which would affect the willingness of the insurer to accept the risk, then the insurer may escape from liability when a claim is made under the policy. Utmost good faith is one of the principles of insurance.
Another fundamental rule is that there must be insurable interest. This means that any person taking out an insurance policy must be in a position to suffer a direct loss if the event insured against happens.
Another axiom of insurance is indemnity. The effect of this principle is that you cannot expect to make a profit out of the insurance contract.
Nowadays there are many types of insurances. They are pet insurance, car insurance, dentist insurance, life assurance, marine insurance and others.
Life assurance is the most widespread type of insurances. In1762 a mathematics teacher, James Dodson, calculated the probability of death for each individual who wanted life assurance. Today it is known as life expectancy – how long the person can expect or hope t o live. It depends on the age of the person, how healthy he or she is, and how risky the job he or she does. James Dodson realized that the more likely person was to die, the fewer he or she would be expected to pay into the fund and, therefore, the more he or she should pay each year. With this information, James Dodson calculated the fixed amount that a person should pay each year; this scheme is widely used nowadays in life assurance cases.
Ex. 9. Find the English equivalents for the words below in the text:
1. страхование;
2. карьера;
3. постепенно;
4. страховая компания;
5. готовность;
6. обязательство, ответственность;
7. страховой полис;
8. аксиома, постулат;
9. страхование автомобилей;
10. морское страхование (судов и грузов);
11. вероятность, возможность, шанс;
12. ожидаемая продолжительность жизни.
Ex. 10. Use the information from the text to answer the questions:
1. Has insurance existed for many centuries?
2. What were the first types of insurance?
3. What are the main types of insurance?
4. What are the essential principles of insurance?
5. What is utmost good faith?
6. What is indemnity?
7. What is life expectancy?
Ex. 11. Decide if the following sentences are True or False:
1. Insurance has existed, in one form or another, for thousands of years.
2. When Roman soldiers were retired from the army, they were given no money.
3. Utmost good faith is one of the principles of insurance.
4. If the insurer has held back any information which would affect the willingness of the insurer to accept the risk, then the insurer must escape from liability when a claim is made under the policy.
5. Fundamental rule of insurance is that there must be insurable interest.
6. Indemnity means that you can expect to make a profit out of the insurance contract.
7. Nowadays there are few types of insurances.
8. Life assurance is the least widespread type of insurances.
9. Life expectancy is how long the person can expect or hope t o live.
10. Life expectancy depends on the age of the person, how rich he or she is.
Ex. 12. Develop the sentences:
1. Insurance has existed …
2. In the days when pirates used to attack ships at sea…
3. Gradually the basic principles ...
4. Complete honesty is …
5. Utmost good faith is one…
6. Another fundamental rule is ...
7. Another axiom of insurance is ...
8. Nowadays there are many types of insurances...
9. Life assurance is …
10. Life expectancy is…
Ex. 13. Make a dialogue. At the insurance company.
A:you are a lawyer and you want to insure you new house and your life.
B:you are a broker. Help your client.
Ex. 14. Reduce the text to one fifth of its original length giving the most important information.
a) Make an outline of the text consisting of 5-8 sentences.
b) Retell the text according to its outline.
FACTORY PRODUCTION
List of words
Read the words and learn them:
| advantage | преимущество, выгода, польза |
| batch production | серийное производство |
| to bring about | осуществлять; вызывать |
| cargo | груз |
| continuous production | непрерывное производство |
| contribution | пожертвование, взнос, вклад |
| to convince | убеждать, уверять (в чём-л.) |
| craft | ремесло; профессия |
| disarmingly simple | обезоруживающе просто |
| to draw attention to | привлекать внимание |
| earth-shattering effects | шокирующие действия, влияния; эффекты |
| to gain | добывать, зарабатывать |
| to increase | возрастать, увеличиваться; расти |
| job production | изготовление продукции по заказу |
| mass-production | массовое производство |
| misery | страдание, бедность, нищета, нужда |
| order | заказ |
| owe | быть должным (кому-л.) |
| pace | скорость, темп |
| phenomenon (pl. -ena or -enons ) | событие, феномен, явление |
| to be responsible for | ответственный |
| to solve the problems | решать, разрешать (проблему ) |
| specialization | специализация |
| to spread out | 1)рассредоточиваться, 2)планировать, 3) налаживаться (о бизнесе) |
| technique | техника, технические приёмы, метод |
| trail | след (человека или животного |
| upsurge | повышение, подъём, рост |
| vote of thanks | "вотум благодарности", выражение благодарности (организаторам встречи и т.п.) |
| worldwide | мировой |
Ex. 1 Complete the phrase by matching the word from A with its best association from B. Translate the phrases.
| A | B |
| 1. to gain | a) the craft |
| 2. earth-shattering | b) advantages |
| 3. to practise | c) the problem |
| 4. to solve | d) cargoes |
| 5. to carry | e) effects |
Ex. 2. Read the text and translate it into Russian.
Over two hundred years ago, Adam Smith introduced some ideas which were to bring about a world revolution. If we enjoy a high standard of living in modern society, we owe much to this Scottish economist and philosopher. If we enjoy driving in sleek motor cars, wearing fashionable shoes, or flying away to distant places for exciting holidays, we should perhaps give an occasional vote of thanks to the man who made it all possible.
What then was Adam Smith's contribution? Like so many ideas which have earth-shattering effects, his was a disarmingly simple notion. He watched workers practicing their craft of pin making. One man would heat the strip of metal, stretch it out, cut off an appropriate length, shape it, cool it and finally smooth and shine it. Smith drew attention to the advantages which could be gained if these various tasks were performed by different workers. Let one be responsible for keeping the brazier glowing and preparing the metal. Another for stretching and cutting. Another for shaping. Another for finishing. He described this technique as the Division of Labor, whereby workers perform short work-cycles, repeating the same actions again and again and again. Smith convinced the world that specialization could solve the problems of poverty and want.
What was the result? The Industrial Revolution, specialization became the order of the day. Productivity was increased to an incredible degree. For Britain, where the revolution started, there was an upsurge in prosperity which made them the richest country in the nineteenth century world. British trains - and railway lines - spread out like a spider's web across the world, opening up the great continents of America, Asia, Africa and Australasia. British ships - built of iron and steel - were used to carry the new bountiful cargoes (including human beings) from every corner of the world, to every corner of the world.
The revolution is not over. It is still with us, but now it is a worldwide phenomenon. Everywhere, factories producing large numbers of more or less identical units are in continuous production. What were called mass-production lines yesterday are called robotic production lines today. If anything, the pace of change is increasing. And if these techniques have brought us prosperity, they have also brought us a trail of misery in overcrowded towns, boring jobs and, worst of all, unemployment.
Ex. 3. Use the information from the text to answer the questions:
1. Why is the name of Adam Smith remembered?
2. What technique was he responsible for introducing?
3. Why was Britain the richest country in the world in the nineteenth century?
4. What do you understand by the term «robotic production lines»?
5. Why do you think some jobs might be boring?
6. How can we blame Adam Smith for our present overcrowded towns?
7. How does large-scale production cause unemployment?
Ex. 4. Mark the following sentences as true or false
1. Over three hundred years ago, Adam Smith introduced some ideas which were to bring about a world revolution.
2. Smith convinced the world that globalization could solve the problems of poverty and want.
3. Unit costs will always tend to be low when large numbers of individually designed items are produced.
4. Advertising is often necessary to ensure that stocks of finished goods do not pile up in the factory.
5. Higher output can be obtained by running the cheap machines over two or three shifts per day.
6. The orders consist of a significant number of similar items.
7. Both labour and machines have to be more versatile than in the case of mass production, but less so than in the case of job production.
Ex. 5. Develop the sentences:
1. Over two hundred years ago, Adam Smith introduced …
2. Adam Smith's contribution was …
3. Smith drew attention to ...
4. He described the technique …
5. Smith convinced the world that …
6. Specialization became …
7. Productivity was increased …
8. There was an upsurge …
9. The revolution is not ...
10. The techniques have brought us …
11. At the same time the techniques have also brought…
CONTENTS
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 3
Solicitors. 3
Barristers. 7
Magistrates, Judges and other legal professions. 12
THE COURT SYSTEM OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 17
THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE USA.. 24
LAWMAKING PROCESS IN GREAT BRITAIN.. 30
LAWMAKING PROCESS IN THE USA.. 35
INSURANCE. 39
FACTORY PRODUCTION.. 46
TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES
Solicitors
List of words
Read and learn the words
| to advise | советовать |
| an agent | представитель; доверенное лицо |
| a case | судебное дело; случай, прецедент |
| a clerk | клерк ,солиситор-практикант |
| a client | клиент |
| to deal with something | иметь дело с |
| defense | защита |
| to include | включать в себя, содержать в себе |
| to increase | возрастать, увеличиваться; расти |
| litigation | тяжба; судебный процесс |
| to pass an exam | сдать экзамен |
| to prepare | готовить, подготавливать |
| to qualify | получать какую-л. профессию |
| a solicitor | солиситор, стряпчий |
| a will | завещание |
| to work on something | работать над чем-либо |
Ex. 1. Make up word combinations by matching the word from A with its best association from B and translate them.
| A | B |
| 1. to make | a) on cases |
| 2. agents for | b) as a solicitor |
| 3. to increase | c) legal documents |
| 4. to prepare | d) a will |
| 5. to pass | e) an exam |
| 6. to work | f) rapidly |
| 7. to qualify | g) litigation |
Ex.2. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1. a client | a) an action or suit at law |
| 2. a will | b) the action of protecting oneself |
| 3. a case | c) a person who acts on behalf of another person |
| 4. defense | d) the declaration of a person's wishes regarding his or her property after death |
| 5. an agent | e) a person, company, etc., that seeks the advice of a professional man or woman |
Ex.3. Think of your own sentences with the following word combinations.
To work on court cases, to deal with all the day-to day work, act in all courts as the agents for litigation, to give advice, to make a will, to appear as advocates in lower courts, to get into trouble; to prepare legal documents, to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk”, to pass the Law Society exams.
Ex.4. Read the text.
Solicitors
England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers, with separate jobs in the legal system. The two kinds of lawyers are solicitors and barristers.
If a person has a problem, he will go and see a solicitor. Solicitors can be found everywhere. There are about 50000 solicitors in Britain. Solicitors make up the largest branch of legal professions in England.
Solicitor is a type of practicing lawyer in Britain. Solicitors work on court cases and deal with all the day-to day work. Solicitors give advice, do the necessary work when property is bought or sold. If one wants to make a will the person to advise him is a solicitor. If one gets into trouble with the police one can ask a solicitor to help prepare legal document for his defense.
Solicitors have a right to act in all courts as the agents for litigation or representatives of their clients, but they may appear as advocates only in lower courts. Solicitors can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts. In the County Court the solicitor wears a black gown over his ordinary clothes.
The education required of a solicitor includes a law school course. To qualify as a solicitor one is to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk” and to work for him for a period of five years (three years for university graduated) in order to pass the Law Society exams. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens (The Commonwealth is an organization of about 50 countries that were part of the British Empire).
Ex. 5. Answer the questions.
1. How many solicitors are there in Great Britain?
2. Do solicitors make the smallest branch of legal professions in England?
3. Where can you find a solicitor?
4. What do solicitors do?
5. May solicitors appear as advocates in higher courts?
6. Where can a solicitor appear as a lawyer?
7. What cases can a solicitor represent in a court?
8. What education do solicitors need?
9. How long do solicitors work as “clerks”?
10. What exam do solicitors pass?
11. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens, mustn’t they?
Ex.6. Decide if the following statements are True or False.
1. There are about 30000solicitors in Great Britain.
2. Solicitors make the smallest branch of legal professions in England
3. Solicitors are found only in big cities.
4. Solicitors work on court cases and deal with all the day-to day work.
5. Solicitors represent clients in the higher court.
6. Solicitors give advice and do not do the necessary work when property is bought or sold.
7. If one gets into trouble with the police one can ask a solicitor to help prepare legal document for his defense.
8. Solicitors do not have a right to act in all courts as the agents for litigation or representatives of their clients.
9. Solicitors represent divorce cases in the High Court.
10. The education required of a solicitor includes a secondary school course.
11. To qualify as a solicitor one is to join a practicing solicitor as a “clerk” and to work for him forever.
12. Solicitors pass the Law Society exams.
13. Solicitors must be British Commonwealth citizens.
Ex. 7. Develop the following sentences.
1. A solicitor is…
2. Solicitors prepare…
3. Solicitors deal with….
4. Solicitors advise on….
5. Solicitors help…
6. Solicitors’ duties include…
7. Solicitors can not…..
8. The required education for solicitors includes….
9. Solicitors must be citizens of
Ex. 8. Make a list of solicitors’ duties.
Ex. 9. Write down key words, phrases and sentences from each paragraph of the text.
Ex.10. Reduce the text to one fifth of its original length giving the most important information.
a) Make an outline of the text consisting of 5-8 sentences.
b) Retell the text according to its outline.
Barristers
List of words.
Read and learn the words.
| to accept a case | принимать, брать; соглашаться |
| apprenticeship | учение; ученичество |
| a barrister | адвокат, барристер |
| to carry on | продолжать, заниматься |
| to defend | защищать на суде |
| to engage in | заниматься чем-л. |
| fee | вознаграждение, гонорар |
| a gown | мантия |
| higher court | суд вышестоящей инстанции |
| Inns of Court | "Судебные инны" (четыре английские школы подготовки барристеров) |
| to preside | председательствовать |
| proceedings | иск, обращение за судебной помощью |
| to prosecute | преследовать в судебном или уголовном порядке |
| QC (Queen's Counsel) | королевский адвокат |
| to be responsible for | быть ответственным за |
| to specialize in | специализироваться |
| a wig | парик |
Ex. 1. Make up word combinations by matching the word from A with its best association from B and translate them.
| A | B |
| 1. to engage | a) in advocacy |
| 2. to advise on | b) wigs and gowns |
| 3. to accept | c) a case |
| 4. to wear | d) apprenticeship |
| 5. to serve | e) difficult points |
| 6. to carry | f) on business |
Ex.2. Match the words with their definitions.
| 1. a wig | a) an artificial head of hair |
| 2. apprenticeship | b) an elegant or formal dress |
| 3. a fee | c) a payment asked by professional people |
| 4. a gown | d) the four private societies in London |
| 5. Inns of Court | e) being a student |
Ex.3. Read the text
Barristers
Barrister is one of the two types of practicing lawyers in England, the other is the solicitor. There are about 5000 barristers in England and Wales. In general, barristers engage in advocacy and solicitors deal with office work.
Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the Law. Barristers advise on really difficult points. Only barristers may appear as advocates before the High Court. In the court barristers wear wigs and gowns.
Barristers are rather untouchable figures. If you need one, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in what is known as chambers, often in London. To be a barrister it is necessary to be a member of one of four Inns of Court in London. Inns of Court are four institutions that are historically responsible for legal education.
A prospective barrister must pass some examinations established for the Inns by the Council of Legal Education and must read law and serve his apprenticeship with a practicing barrister for not less than a year. The highest level of barristers has the title QC.
A barrister is required to accept any case for a proper professional fee. A good barrister can earn 30000 pounds a year. Only barristers can become judges in an English Court above a Magistrates’ Court. Barristers can not carry on any other profession or business.
Barristers are also found in South Africa and New South West (Australia).