I. List all transnational crimes and give their definitions with the help of the glossary or with your own words. Translate them into Russian.

II. Choose any three groups of crimes to speak about their state in your country.

TEXT 8

I. Read the text and answer the questions after it.

Homicide

The term "homicide" means the killing of a human being by a human being and when expressed in this all embracing way does not attempt to differentiate between those which are unlawful and those which are not. Those which offend against the law are murder, manslaughter, infanticide and causing death by reckless driving. Some acts which are carried out in emergencies to prevent violence, either in the commission of crime or against the person, may be sufficiently excusable to escape the criminal law. The various offences of homicide are all arrestable offences.

Murder continues to be a common law offence. It is defined as follows: "The crime of murder is committed where a person of sound mind and discretion unlawfully kills any reasonable creature in being, and under the Queen's peace, with intent unlawfully to kill or cause grievous bodily harm, the death following within a year and a day of the hurt or injury"

Manslaughter is a term which covers a variety of unlawful homicides which do not amount to murder. For ease of understanding of the offences of manslaughter, it is better to divide the offence into two varieties, voluntary and involuntary manslaughter.

Voluntary manslaughters embody all the characteristics of murder including the necessary malice aforethought. It is the presence of particular circumstances acting upon the mind of the person carrying out the fatal act, which has the effect of reducing the nature of the crime. At common law extreme provocation, acting upon the person at the time, lessened his blameworthiness. Hot blooded killings were less offensive to society than cold blooded killings. The Homicide Act 1957 added two further circumstances in which blame might be lessened; first, where the person committing the fatal act was suffering from "diminished responsibility", and, second, where a killing occurred in consequence of a suicide pact.

Involuntary manslaughter covers cases where the accused, who has unlawfully killed another, is not guilty of murder because he lacked malice aforethought (i.e. an intent unlawfully to kill or cause grievous bodily harm) but acted with some lesser degree of mens rea.

A person who kills another is guilty of involuntary manslaughter if he does so by: a reckless act or omission; or an act which is unlawful and dangerous.

1. What does the term « homicide» mean?

2. How are the offences of homicide classified?

3. Give the definition of murder in your own words.

4. What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary manslaughter?

5. In what cases is a person guilty of involuntary manslaughter?

II. Write a 120-180-word summary of the text.

TEXT 9

The Case for the Defence

The author Grahame Greene was born in 1904. He worked for various newspapers, was an intelligence agent in the Second World War, and frequently travelled in remote and dangerous places. He wrote novels, short stories, plays, and travel books. Among his lighter novels, which Greene called 'entertainments', are Stamboul Train, A Gun for Sale, and The Third Man, which was made into a famous film. Greene himself preferred his other novels, which reflect his intense interest in religious and moral issues (he was a Roman Catholic convert). These powerful and somber novels include Brighton Rock, The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter, A Burnt-out Case, and The Human Factor. Greene died in 1991.

The story

Some crime stories deal not with the murder itself, but with the trial when the murderer is brought to justice - or not, as the case may be. It all depends on the strength of the evidence and the reliability of the witnesses. According to English law, people are innocent until they are proved guilty. It is the defence lawyer's job to challenge the evidence, to shake the witnesses' confidence, to persuade the jury that his client is not guilty 'beyond all reasonable doubt'.

The accused in this story will be sentenced to death by hanging if the jury find him guilty. At the beginning it seems an open-and-shut case, according to the journalist telling us the story. Surely no defence lawyer could challenge this evidence, shake these witnesses' certainty...

The Case for the Defence

It was the strangest murder trial I ever attended. They named it the Peckham* murder in the headlines, though Northwood Street, where the old woman was found murdered, was not strictly speaking in Peckham. This was not one of those cases of circumstantial evidence in which you feel the jurymen's* anxiety - because mistakes have been made - like domes of silence muting the court. No, this murderer was all but found with the body: no one present when the Crown counsel* outlined his case believed that the man in the dock stood any chance at all.

He was a heavy stout man with bulging bloodshot eyes. All his muscles seemed to be in his thighs. Yes, an ugly customer, one you wouldn't forget in hurry - and that was an important point because the Crown proposed to call four witnesses who hadn't forgotten him, who had seen him hurrying away from the little red villa in Northwood Street. The clock had just struck two in the morning.

Mrs. Salmon in 15 Northwood Street had been unable to sleep: she heard a door click shut and thought it was her own gate. So she went to the window and saw Adams (that was his name) on the steps of Mrs. Parkers house. He had just come out and he was wearing gloves. He had a hammer in his hand and she saw him drop it into the laurel bushes by the front gate. But before he moved away, he had looked up - at her window. The fatal instinct that tells a man when he is watched exposed him in the light of a street-lamp to her gaze - his eyes suffused with horrifying and brutal fear, like an animal's when you raise a whip. I talked afterwards to Mrs. Salmon, who naturally after the astonishing verdict went in fears herself. As I imagine did all the witnesses - Henry MacDougall, who had been driving home from Benfleet late and nearly ran Adams down at the comer of Northwood Street. Adams was walking in the middle of the road looking dazed. And old Mr. Wheeler, who lived next door to Mrs. Parker, at No. 12, and was wakened by a noise - like a chair falling - through the thin-as-paper villa wall, and got up and looked out of the window, just as Mrs. Salmon had done, saw Adams's back and, as he turned, those bulging eyes. In Laurel Avenue he had been seen by yet another witness - his luck was badly out; he might as well have committed the crime in broad daylight.

'I understand,' counsel said, 'that the defence proposes to plead mistaken identity. Adams's wife will tell you that he was with her at two in the morning on February 14, but after you have heard the witnesses for the Crown and examined carefully the features of the prisoner, I do not think you will be prepared to admit the possibility of a mistake.'

It was all over, you would have said, but the hanging. After the formal evidence had been given by the policeman who had found the body and the surgeon who examined it, Mrs. Salmon was called. She was the ideal witness, with her slight Scotch accent and her expression of honesty, care and kindness.

The counsel for the Crown brought the story gently out. She spoke very firmly. There was no malice in her, and no sense of importance at standing there in the Central Criminal Court with a judge in scarlet hanging on her words and the reporters writing them down. Yes, she said, and then she had gone downstairs and rung up the police station.

'And do you see the man here in court?'

She looked straight at the big man in the dock, who stared hard at her with his Pekingese* eyes without emotion.

'Yes,' she said, 'there he is.'

'You are quite certain?'

She said simply, 'I couldn't be mistaken, sir.'

It was all as easy as that.

'Thank you, Mrs. Salmon.'

Counsel for the defence rose to cross-examine. If you had reported as many murder trials as I have, you would have known beforehand what line he would take. And I was right, up to a point.

Now, Mrs. Salmon, you must remember that a man's life may depend on your evidence.'

'I do remember it, sir.'

'Is your eyesight good?'

'I have never had to wear spectacles, sir.'

'You are a woman of fifty-five?' Fifty-six, sir.'' And the man you saw was on the other side of the road?'

‘Yes, sir.’

'And it was two o'clock in the morning. You must have remarkable eyes, Mrs. Salmon?'

'No, sir. There was moonlight, and when the man looked up, he had the lamplight on his face.'

'And you have no doubt whatever that the man you saw is the prisoner?'

I couldn't make out what he was at. He couldn't have expected any other answer than the one he got.

'None whatever, sir. It isn't a face one forgets.'

Counsel took a look round the court for a moment. Then he said, 'Do you mind, Mrs. Salmon, examining again the people in court? No, not the prisoner. Stand up, please, Mr. Adams,' and there at the back of the court with thick stout body and muscular legs and a pair of bulging eyes, was the exact image of the man in the dock. He was even dressed the same - tight blue suit and striped tie.

'Now think very carefully, Mrs. Salmon. Can you still swear that the man you saw drop the hammer in Mrs. Parker's garden was the prisoner - and not this man, who is his twin brother?'

Of course she couldn't. She looked from one to the other and didn't say a word.

There the big brute sat in the dock with his legs crossed, and there he stood too at the back of the court and they both stared at Mrs. Salmon. She shook her head.

What we saw then was the end of the case. There wasn't a witness prepared to swear that it was the prisoner he'd seen. And the brother? He had his alibi, too; he was with his wife.

And so the man was acquitted for lack of evidence. But whether - if he did the murder and not his brother - he was punished or not, I don't know. That extraordinary day had an extraordinary end. I followed Mrs. Salmon out of court and we got wedged in the crowd who were waiting, of course, for the twins. The police tried to drive the crowd away, but all they could do was keep the roadway clear for traffic. I learned later that they tried to get the twins to leave by a back way, but they wouldn't. One of them - no one knew which - said, I've been acquitted, haven't I?' and they walked bang out of the front entrance. Then it happened. I don't know how, though I was only six feet away. The crowd moved and somehow one of the twins got pushed on to the road right in front of a bus.

He gave a squeal like a rabbit and that was all; he was dead, his skull smashed just as Mrs. Parker's had been. Divine vengeance? I wish I knew. There was the other Adams getting on his feet from beside the body and looking straight over at Mrs. Salmon. He was crying, but whether he was the murderer or the innocent man nobody will ever be able to tell. But if you were Mrs. Salmon, could you sleep at night?

Notes:

Peckham - a district in London

jurymen - a group of people (nowadays both men and women) in a court of justice, who must listen to the evidence and decide if the accused is innocent or guilty

Crown counsel - a barrister (lawyer) appointed by the government to conduct the case for the prosecution

Pekingese - a type of small dog with large bulging eyes