B. ProRail predicts RCF hotspots
Rolling contact fatigue is a treacherous phenomenon. It is one of the main reasons for premature replacement of rails, because RCF can usually only be detected at the point where maintenance no longer has any effect and replacement is the only option. In 1999 the European Rail Research Institute estimated the total cost of RCF to European railways at €300m a year. But over the last three years the scale of the problem and the cost have increased significantly. A Dutch study in the mid-1990s found that the probability that head checks would lead to a vertical rail break was much greater than had been assumed. By the end of the 1990s railways across Europe were reporting a significant increase in the extent of RCF, and the implications were graphically demonstrated by the high-speed derailment at Hatfield in October 2000 which was the result of a multiple rail break.
Following Hatfield, Dutch infrastructure manager ProRail formed a national RCF project team in 2001, in conjunction with AEA Technology Rail and NedTrain Consulting. But it seems clear that the current regime of visual inspection and rail replacement is not the most cost-effective way to monitor and control RCF. An automated inspection system is now under development and this will help to identify head checks and squats on a regular basis. ProRail has analysed its field data on RCF damage to increase its understanding of the sensitivity of different parts of the network to the development of head checks. This will enable maintenance and control measures to be concentrated on the most critical areas, extending rail life and reducing the overall costs. These preventative measures are now being translated into ProRail's policy, regulations and operational processes.
The first step for the project team was to initiate a network-wide visual inspection, using standardised damage classifications to ensure uniform reporting by all contractors. AEA Technology Rail provides a helpdesk giving assistance during inspection, has developed the RCF database and undertakes data analysis for the project. Around 80 inspectors from the three main contractors, Strukton, BAM and Volker Stevin, undertook an initial two-month survey of 4 200 track-km where line speeds were 100 km/h or more. This found head check damage totalling 293 track-km, and all sites where the damage was classified Heavy or Severe were subsequently tested ultrasonically. The ultrasonic test results, actions taken, and timescales are also included in the database. The visual classification model, which relates surface crack length to crack depth, was validated through accurate measurement of damaged rail sections removed from the track. Figure 3 shows that the model is slightly conservative for longer cracks, but is an accurate, safe and reliable tool for initial classification of head checks. For cracks up to 10 mm long, the actual depth was sometimes greater than predicted, but this does not create an unsafe situation. For longer cracks the actual depth was always less than the predicted value.
Fig. 3
The RCF damage database compiled in June 2001 was combined with track data such as curve radius, cant, sleeper type, traffic type and line speed. This allowed the occurrence of head checks to be analysed for different parameters. As expected, damage was mainly observed in curvesof between 1 000 and 3 000 m radius and in switches (Figure 4). Recent investigations indicate that the sort ofcracking depends on a number ofparameters. The ProRail RCF database isstill being developed, and does not yetinclude all of these parameters.
Fig. 4
Exercise 12.Now answer the questions to text B.
1)What do these abbreviations mean?
a) RCF
b) AEA
c) fig.
2)What words are used while describing trends? Divide them into three columns: verbs, adverbs and adjectives. What words can you find in the text?
detected, go up, increase, recover, greater, balance, assume, slightly, dramatically, the most cost-effective, analyse, steady, develop, incentive, standardized, decrease, undertake, show, initial, predicted, less, expected, observed, recent, investigate, indicate.
3)What is the main idea of the passage? Support the main idea chosen by giving 4 specific ideas.
a) Damage was mainly observed in curvesof between 1 000 and 3 000 m radius and in switches.
b) Rolling contact fatigue is a treacherous phenomenon.
c) AEA Technology Rail provides a helpdesk giving assistance during inspection, has developed the RCF database and undertakes data analysis for the project.
4) What are the main results of the survey? Try to use some of the phrases from the presentation which could be of use to you:
a) ups and downs; b) a rise of some ten points; c) give or take a point; d) the overall trend; e) an unexpected dip; f) in the region of 3,200; g) getting on for 1850
C. HUMAN CAPITAL: THE CHALLENGE IS MAINTAINING THE EDGE
Human capital represents the quality of the labour input. A high quality of labour resources will facilitate the economy’s technological progress, e.g. via product innovation and higher efficiency and productivity. South Korea has much to be proud of in the area of human capital.
At the secondary school level, South Korean students excel by international standards. At the latest PISA (the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment, which measures the capabilities of 15-year-olds in reading, maths and science literacy) in 2006, South Korean students ranked top for reading, 2nd highest for math (see figure 5) and 7th for science among all OECD countries.
Fig. 5
High-quality secondary school education naturally produces a large pool of qualified students for tertiary education. Compared with its OECD peers, South Korea ranks in the top 10 for tertiary attainment of the working population (i.e. the 25-to-64 age group). At 30.5%, South Korea is well above the OECD’s average of 25.2%. South Korea’s tertiary attainment ratio of the younger working population (i.e. 25 to 34-year-olds) is even more impressive, ranking 3rd in the OECD peer group at 49.1% compared with the OECD average of 31%. The rate of improvement of the tertiary attainment ratio for the young working population was the fastest in the OECD in the period 1991-2004, from 21% in 1991 to 49.1% in 2004.
A large, well-educated workforce is the reason for South Korea’s success in several key industries, including consumer electronics. Despite a setback after the financial crisis, South Korean chaebols such as Samsung, LG, and Hyundai have re-established themselves as leading global brands with cutting-edge technology.
Still, despite its impressive track record, some concern has emerged among policy makers, academics and the public that the higher education degree as offered in South Korea may need to be adjusted to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy and lifelong learning. Symptoms include “a market flooded with unemployed college graduates … signs of ‘over-education’ … and skills mismatch across virtually all fields of occupations and industries as cited in a Korean Development Institute study 15. The study identified the problems in Korean higher education as stemming from over-regulation and under-financing. Despite deregulation efforts, the higher education system remains highly centralised and not adequately adaptable to market needs. The study finds that tertiary education has been mostly supported by private spending. The observation is supported by OECD data which shows that South Korea’s annual expenditure per student for tertiary institutions is around 60% of the OECD average.
Thus, it appears that to maintain the edge in human capital, South Korea needs to further improve its tertiary education system by providing more adequate public funding. At the same time, tertiary institutions should benefit from operating with greater autonomy, in particular in management and academic affairs.
Exercise 13.Now answer the questions to text C.
1)What do these abbreviations mean?
a) PISA
b) OECD
c) LG
2)What words are used while describing trends? Divide them into three columns: verbs, adverbs and adjectives. What words can you find in the text?
represent, go up, measure, recover, rank, balance, assume, top, highest, the most cost-effective, compared with, steady, steadily, be above, incentive, decrease, impressive, show, average, initial, improving, less, fastest, observed, investigate, setback, identify, annual, appear, maintain, further.
3)What is the main idea of the passage? Support the main idea chosen by giving 4 specific ideas.
a) Human capital represents the quality of the labour input.
b) South Korea has much to be proud of in the area of human capital.
c) South Korea needs to further improve its tertiary education system by providing more adequate public funding.
4) What are the main results of the survey? Try to use some of the phrases from the presentation which could be of use to you:
a) ups and downs; b) a rise of some thirty points; c) give or take a point; d) the overall trend; e) an unexpected dip; f) in the region of 25-to-64 age group;
g) getting on for 2004.
D. RUSSIA: INDUSTRY STILL NOT FIT DESPITE ENERGY BOOM
There is a strong imbalance in Germany’s engineering trade with Russia. Sales of German machinery to Russia total EUR 5.2 bn, equivalent to 4.3% of exports in the sector. By contrast, Germany imports Russian machinery worth only EUR 62 m, or merely 0.1% of total machinery imports.
Germany is Russia’s most important supplier of machinery at about 25% of the total. In 2006, Germany machinery exports were 300% higher than in 2000. This growth rate has been maintained in the meantime. German machinery exports to Russia rose 39% in 2006. The top 3 positions on the popularity scale are currently held by food and packaging machinery (11% share), building-related engineering segments (10%) and agricultural technology (9%) (see figure 6).
Fig. 6
Unlike China and India, Russia has abundant reserves of the fossil fuels oil and natural gas. The price boom that started in 1999 has given the Russian economy a significant boost in several ways. Some of the additional revenue from commodity exports is being saved in a stability fund. However, some of the money is flowing into an investment fund that is used for major national projects like infrastructure, education, residential construction and industrial development. Since 2006 economic growth has also been driven by consumption, as the hefty increases in real wages have boosted consumers’ purchasing power. One risk to economic growth in Russia remains the fluctuation in commodity prices. Until 2015 the urgently required expertise of German mechanical engineering firms should enable them to increase their exports by 12% p.a. Although our GDP growth forecast for Russia (+5% p.a.) certainly does not put the country at the very top of the rankings it nevertheless places it among the best performers. Nevertheless, Germany’s machinery exports will surge most noticeably to Russia because that country particularly requires investment in the industrial and energy sectors and – as in past years – it is most likely to order machinery from Germany.
Practically the entire product spectrum of German manufacturers will be enhanced by the trend improvement in Russia – either sooner or later, and to differing degrees. Without building and expanding transport, energy and communication networks as well as constructing a competitive industrial infrastructure it will not only be impossible to sustain efficient extraction and processing of raw materials, but also to satisfy the population’s growing consumption demands. For the foreseeable future the renovation of Russian industry, for example in the oil and gas-producing as well as rawmaterial processing sector, power generation, aircraft and shipbuilding segments, will boost demand for related machinery and equipment. The modernisation and expansion of the food, beverage and tobacco segment will provide long-lasting stimuli for foodprocessing machinery as well as modern packaging machines.
Exercise 14.Now answer the questions to text D.
1)What do these abbreviations mean?
a) EUR
b) p.a.
c) GDP
2)What words are used while describing trends? Divide them into three columns: verbs, adverbs and adjectives. What words can you find in the text?
detected, increase, total, greater, equivalent, assume, worth, the most cost-effective, higher, steady, incentive, maintained, decrease, rose, show, top, initial, currently, held, less, observed, significant, investigate, boost, risk, remain, fluctuate, forecast, place.
3)What is the main idea of the passage? Support the main idea chosen by giving 4 specific ideas.
a) Russia has abundant reserves of the fossil fuels oil and natural gas.
b) Russia is placed among the best performers.
c) The renovation of Russian industry will boost demand for related machinery and equipment.
4) What are the main results of the survey? Try to use some of the phrases from the presentation which could be of use to you:
a) ups and downs; b) total EUR 5.2 bn; c) give or take a point; d) one risk remains the fluctuation; e) an unexpected dip; f) GDP growth forecast for Russia +5% p.a.;
g) getting on by 12%.
Exercise 15.Complete the visual below with information relevant to your speciality. Make a few notes before you present. You don't need to describe the visual in detail. Give approximate figures and point out the overall trends and developments.
Notes ………………………………………………..
Useful words and expressions:
| just over | about / around | in the region of | just under |
| approximately | getting on for | well over | roughly |
| just short of | well under | more or less | nowhere near |
Exercise 16.Study the scheme “Non-For-Profit Financial Reporting” (figure 7). Translate the abbreviations into Russian. Describe the scheme to the group.
Fig. 7