Учебное пособие по техническому переводу
УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО ТЕХНИЧЕСКОМУ ПЕРЕВОДУ
Иваново 2008
УДК 811.111
С50
Смирнова Т.В., Тюрина С.Ю. Учебное пособие по техническому переводу: Учеб. пособие / ГОУВПО «Ивановский государственный энергетический университет имени В.И.Ленина». – Иваново, 2008. – 132 с.
ISBN
Учебное пособие содержит сведения по теории научно-технического перевода и сборник упражнений для комплексной тренировки. Предназначено для студентов старших курсов специальности «Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации»
Ил. 2. Табл.1. Библиогр.: 8 назв.
Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета ГОУВПО «Ивановский государственный энергетический университет имени В.И.Ленина»
Научный редактор доц. Н.А. Дударева
Рецензент
кафедра интенсивного изучения английского языка ГОУВПО «Ивановский государственный энергетический университет имени В.И.Ленина»
ISBN © Т.В.Смирнова, С.Ю.Тюрина, 2008
Contents
| Introduction to the course of scientific and technical translation | |
| Unit 1. Some characteristics of scientific language: lexical aspects | |
| Unit 2. Some characteristics of technical language: grammatical aspects | |
| Unit 3. Precision information. Translation notation | |
| Unit 4. Graphs description | |
| Unit 5. Classes of technical literature | |
| Unit 6. Technical Description. Instructions. Specifications | |
| Translation manual | |
| Приложение |
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATION
What English to study and translate can be chosen after valid needs analysis. So far you have been studying everyday English, Survival English, language of fiction, Business English, and basics of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Now, the subject matter for your studies is English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
EST is the senior branch of ESP, senior in age, larger in volume of publications, and greater in number of translators. We live in the Age of Information; most of students throughout the world study science and technology. It is easier to study science and technology than it is to study business and humanities because science is more regular across the languages, i.e. there are many similarities between, for example, scientific English and scientific Russian.
At the lessons you will be offered authentic ESP (EST) texts for translation analysis. You are to choose articles for work on your own according to your professional interests and with high claim to authenticity.
We cannot stay fixed on technical texts only. There will be videoclips or audio passages of the informative content based on the BBC programs, such as "Science World", "Science News", "Future File", "Click-on-line", "Horizon" for you to translate or interpret.
Every lesson you will be exposed to unpredictable authentic passages to practice translation.
Home assignment
Write 10-15 basic terms that define your speciality. Explain them. Discuss: ESP classification, main features of Technical English and problems of its translation.
Abbreviations used in this book:
IT - Information Technology
EM - Electromechanics
HE - Heat Engineering '
EC - Economics
S - Sociology
PR-Public Relations
UNIT 1. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE: LEXICAL ASPECTS
Words of general science language or belonging
To scientific prose as a genre
To analyze, to consider, to compare, to increase, to involve, to result in, to result from, to turn/switch on/off, progress...
General science terminology is neutral, words have almost equal synonyms.
To grow - to unfold (movement), to develop/ripen/mature (new function), arise/evolve/give rise to (focus on beginning).
This layer comprises basic terms commonly used in all branches of science.
Space, matter, shape, change, measurement, motion, constitution.
Scientific terms
A term is in many respects a very peculiar type of word. Being mostly independent of the context, a term has a denotation meaning. A term is a definitional word, i.e. it is not only directly connected with a scientific definition, but also displays a relationship of one-to-one correspondence with it. No emotional coloring is possible when the same term can have different meanings within different sciences.
Power: энергия, мощность, степен;
Plug: клапан, штепсель, пробка, свеча;
Pillow: подшипник, подкладка, опорная плита;
Trigger: пусковая схема, сигнал, защелка, собачка, курок, детонатор.
Simple terms
(IT) browser, mode, query, timing, statement, application, notation, tracking, utility;
(EM) inverter, amplifier, armature, voltage, torque, gain.
Compound terms
Due to their compressed character compound terms (e.g. attributive constructions of the type "noun+noun") steadily gain grounds (left-hand attributes):
(IT) feedback, polyline, spreadsheet, blockout, walkthrough, to streamline, benchmark, firewall;
(EM) thermocouple, switchboard, bus-duct, airgap, short-circuit.
Borrowing
Фристайл, бодибилдинг, сноуборд; ноутбук, файл, апгрейдинг, интерфейс; бренд, офис-менеджер, консалтинг, промоушн; кастинг, продюсер, саунд-трек; фаст фуд, биг мак, чизбургер.
Лессэ-фэр (свободная конкуренция; фр.laissez faire), автобан (нем. Autobahn); гастарбайтер (нем. Gastarbeiter).
Please, pay attention that English for “митинг” is “rally” not “meeting” and “скотч” is “tape or виски” not “scotch”.
Loans
Science-fiction, position oneself (“позиционировать себя” вместо “заявить о себе”), see you later (“увидимся позже вместо “до встречи”), active matrix.
Agglutination
Airlock (air+lock– воздушная разделительная камера),
stall-proof (stall + proof – несклонный к срыву потока), quink (quick drying ink – быстро сохнущие чернила), propfan (propeller + fan – винтовентиляторный газотурбинный двигатель).
Derivation
Predesign – эскизный проект, nonexpendable – многократное применение, misfire – незапуск двигателя, subassembly – узел агрегата, combustor – устройство сжигания топлива, inaccessible – не имеющий доступa.
Extension of meaning
Stiff leg (несгибающаяся нога) – жёсткая опора (крана); elephant trunk (хобот слона) – всасывающий шланг; camel back (верблюжий горб) – опрокидыватель скипа (горное дело).
Conversion
Motor – двигатель, to motor – работать в двигательном режиме; generator – генератор, to generator – работать в генераторном режиме, layout –расположение, размещение, to lay out – размещать.
Miscellaneous
Пиар (abbreviation + borrowing) – PR, cидишник (abbreviation + slang) – CD-player, know how (conversion + agglutination) – технология производства
Polysemy
Shoe (ботинок, туфля) – кулисный камень, концевая муфта кабеля (эл.), режущий башмак опускной крепи (гор), грохот ; аrm (рука) – рычаг, кронштейн, стрела крана, рукав (мор); loop (петля) – рамочная антенна; speed (скорость) – путь, пройденный за единицу времени.
Exercises
Transliteration
Sprayer, grader, holography,
Descriptive translation
Semi-floating piston ring, drying oil; swirler, single-time-lag servo, pressure oil gun..
Loans
Single-row engine, high-voltage switch, low-noise engine, single-arm semaphore.
Does a term lose its terminological status when it comes into common usage? (e.g. Formerly these words meant: (med.) unit – доза, theatre – операционная, contact – носитель инфекции).
Initial letters
FM (frequency modulation), CRT (cathode ray tube), ADC (analog-to-digital converter), e.m.f., IT, Al, IС, SQL.
Some abbreviated words are called acronyms, they are read and used as regular words:
UNESCO, NATO, AIDS, PLUTO (pipeline under the ocean), DoD (department of defense), UFO.
(IT) ROM, LAN, Ernie (electronic random number indicating equipment), CAD, CAM, DVD, GUI.
(EM) EMF, EMC, FB (fdbk), G, VR, ZF.
Syllables
LORAN (long range navigation), cermet, Compass (computer assurance), sitcom, compander, heliport, stagflation, bit (binary unit), transistor, modem.
Such terms/words are created by agglutination. They are called blends or hybrids.
3.3. Letters+words
H-bomb, Y-coordinate, C-span, e-mail, X-rated, CD-player, D-ration, A-D converter, x-y plotter, D-wave, a-life, R-wire, H-visa.
Letters and figures
C-134 (cargo plane), 1-94 card, G7.
Letter domain suffixes
.com (commerce), .пот (individuals), .edu (education), .net, .mil, .gov (government).
Curtailed words/shortenings
Prop(ellor), op(us), pro(fessional), vet, photo, kilo, metro, spec, perm, deli, info, fab, doc, flu, decaf, recap, celeb, shute.
There is always a tendency to grind down a technical term to indispensable nucleus. Suppose the head of a lab asks, "Have you investigated the solid state monolithic integrated circuits?" The engineer answers, "We have subjected 20 solid state monolithic integrated circuits to life tests". One can predict that with time the term will be abridged first to monolithic integrated circuit and then to integrated circuit, 1С or circuit (the latter is ambiguous). Then comes a genius and calls the whole thing chip and it becomes the "assumed" technical term.
This also happens to shop terms, e.g. a commutator of the d.c. motor needs repairs, which consist of turning, grinding, polishing, undercutting mica, cleaning. To name all operations each time is impossible, so they were put together and named in one word facelifting.
False cognates
Physician, fabric, scenario, candidate, turnkey, etc.
Compile your glossary of False Cognates/False Friends of Translator.
Exercises
5.1. Isencop:tasks 4-14 pp. 92-106 (to the teacher's choice).
The presentation assignment
Explain a technical term. Select a term that you might actually need to explain. Find an example to clarify your explanation. Use visual aids. Use familiar to explain something unfamiliar.
Fission and fusion, real image and virtual image, elastic and plastic, anode and cathode, a and /3 decay, matter and vacuum, local length and focal plane, absolute error and relative error.
Fission – the spontaneous or induced disintegration of the nucleus of a heavy atom into 2 lighter atoms. The process involves a loss of mass which is converted into nuclear energy.
Fusion – the process of forming atoms of new elements by the fusion of atoms of lighter ones. Usually the formation of helium by the fusion of H and its isotopes. The process involves a loss of mass which is converted into nuclear energy.
Simple terms
(IT): mapping, jam, glitch, zoom, access, buffer, byte, clone, digital:
(HE): circuit, turbine, coil, core, plant, installation, gear, leg, condenser, freezer.
(EC): share, stock, account, ship, interest, slump, teller, validity, assets, sales.
(PR): image, publicity, promotion, demotion, nepotism, patronage, the media, response.
(S): identity, integrity, attitude, class, ageism, gender, occupation, census, holistic.
(EM): impedance, gate, capacitor, gear, harmonics, loop, tripping.
Compound terms
(IT): workstation, multitasking, online, offset, feedback, turnkey, layout, flowchart, anti-spam.
(HE): feedwater, thermocouple, interlocked, self-propelled, vibration-proof, manifold.
(EC): welfare, overdraft, off-license, laissez-faire, by-product, undersell, turnover.
(PR): word-of-mouth, telemarketing, par-value, show-off, edbiz, leadership, self-image.
(S): self-perception, prototype, household, birthrate, breakdown, workaholic.
(EM): flywheel, microprocessor, bandwidth, switchgear, servo-mechanism
Term collocations
(IT): batch processing, sampling rate, charge-coupled device, nested task, bit-oriented protocol, binary-coded decimal, advanced feature service provider.
(HE): site licence, stack disposal, uniformly retarded motion, specific heat capacity, melting point, pumped heating, underfloor heating, guide value.
(EC): affiliated company, after-sale service, bear market, carte blanche, consumer durables, economies of scale, face value, actors of production, fair-trade agreement.
(PR): blanket coverage, performance appraisal, Peter principle, order of merit, down shifting, head hunting, hard sell, insider information, canned slogan.
(S): reference group, Gallup poll, gender gap, peer pressure, physically challenged, piggyback principle, identity crisis, social worker, dissenting opinion.
(EM): input offset voltage, frequency response, feedback resistor, partial discharge, overload restriction level.
In technical texts.
1. .A possible scenariofor electronic packaging; interference scenario;scenarios of moderate and strong load management; in ah alternate processing scenario.
The growing size of on-board memory makes even that simple scenariocumbersome.
The stresses and strains of rapid technological growth have produced the following scenario...
There is a plethora of credible scenariosfor achieving human-level intelligence in a machine.
2. Structural candidate;
candidate correlation function;
candidate material,
each candidateroot;
three candidatedefinitions of the vector phase velocity.
3. The worldof integrated circuits;
the entire worldof biological structures;
the binary-dominated solid-state world;
the analog world;
real worldproblem (image, situation);
real-world power systems.
4.Microprocessors are a new entry to the semiconductors' world.
The effectiveness of a signature analysis stems from its origin in the cyclical redundancy check of the computer world.
Most of these programmers will be writing application software programs written in a high-level language and designed to solve some real-world problems.
Even so, some cannot help but wonder why they cannot simply have best of both worlds:the cost and size of the microcomputer, and the ease of use and performance of the minicomputer systems with which they are familia.r
5.This featwas due solely to the arrival of high-density semiconductor technology.
Unix made this featpossible, but more important, it enabled the system to be shaped by user needs.
6. A study was made of the effect of variations in drivingfrequency on reaction rate in high-frequency discharges.
The chips can put out from 35 to 75 ma, enough to directly drive ordinary industrial switches.
| 7. a watchdog timer a skeleton routine a skeleton instruction a skeleton fashion to capture, a burden and a blessing the wisdom of new horizons on the horizon, the signaling art "don't care" conversevely in depth' due to established global infancy to be in its infancy mirror pitfall to proliferate proliferation striking tractable trick trademark | the adoption the state-of-the-art to attack the program counter housekeeping chores styles to enjoy a long life vigorous attempts generous optimistic pessimistic a breakthrough clearly cutoff desire to emerge emerging a feel heavyweight match matching omission troubles pros and cons representation in terms of mainstream technology |
Special plurals
Latin
| A -> AE[i:] | formula - formulae |
| A -> S | area, dilemma, drama |
| EX/IX -> Ices [isiz] | matrix - matrices codex -codices |
| UM -> UMS/A[e] | memorandums, memoranda |
| US -> I [ai] | focus- foci |
Greek
| IS [is] -> ES [iz] | thesis- theses metropolis-metropoles synopsis-synopses crisis-crises |
| ON-> A | criterion – criteria phenomenon-phenomena |
Only plural
Premises, clergy, cattle, police, binoculars, tweezers, poultry, people, folk, etc.
Only singular
Cybernetics, bionics, mathematics, mechanics, snow, rain, homework, news, etc.
Singular and plural
Aircraft, deer, sheep, dice, counsel, swine, trout, barracks, crossroads, means, series, species, works, salmon, offspring.
Words in – ing
Nouns
The moving of the matter, such burning destroys, etc.
Adjectives
An opposing force, existing power supplies, striking difference, etc.
Participles
The rays are coming from; new experiments are being mad, etc.
Gerunds
Melting point; withdrawing/replacing a sleeve; cybernetics will be most helpful in affecting weather and climate control.
Сравните употребление оборотов с неличными формами глагола в английском и русском языках:
| English | Russian |
| I.Обороты с причастиями: а)в функции определения: In the vicinity of the Pole there are animals living on the ice. The soldier wounded in the legwas broughtto the hospital. | Есть, причастные обороты. В окрестностях полюса есть животные, живущие на льду. Солдат, раненный в ногу,был отправлен вгоспиталь. |
| б) в функции обстоятельства: Working at this problem,the scientists havemade interesting discoveries. Having arrived at the site,they discovered many fragments of the meteorite. Being built in a modern style,the housej looked very beautiful. Having been subjected to all the tests,the machine was accepted. | Есть, деепричастные oбороты. Работая над этой проблемой,ученые сделали интересные открытия. Прибыв на это место,они обнаружили много осколков метеорита. Будучи построенным в современном стиле,этот дом выглядел очень красивым. Будучи подвергнутым всем испытаниям,станок был принят. (Нолучше: После того как станок подвергся испытаниям...) |
| The motor being in good order,we could start at once. | Так как мотор был в полном порядке,мы смогли отправиться тотчас же. |
| The professor spoke of the achievements in our economy, his lecture being illustrated by diagrams. | Профессор говорил о достижениях в нашей экономике,и его лекция иллюстрировалась диаграммами. |
| The professor having finished his lecture,we began to discuss it. | После того как профессор закончил лекцию,мы начали обсуждать ее. |
| It being dark,we could see nothing. | Так как было темно,мы ничего не могли увидеть. |
| There being no tram, wehad to walk. | Так как не было трамвая,нам пришлось идти пешком. |
| II. Обороты с герундием: а) в функции подлежащего: His being tired after his hard work is quite natural. His having been absent at the meetingis easily explained. | Нет, переводится придаточным предложением. То, что он устал после своей тяжелой работы, вполне естественно. То, что он отсутствовал на собрании,легко объяснимо. |
| б) в функции дополнения: She knows of my living in Moscow, butshe does not know of my having lived in London. I heard of the bridge being built.I heard of the bridge having been built. | Нет, перев. дополнительным придаточным предложением. Оназнает, что я живу в Москве,но она не знает, что я жил в Лондоне. Я слышал, что мост строится.Я слышал, что мост уже построен. |
| в) в функции определения: We understood the importance of this problem being solved practically. The teacher liked the idea of our speaking only English at our English lessons. | Нет, перев. определительным придаточным предложением. Мы поняли важность того, чтобы эта проблема была решена практически. Преподавателю понравилась мысль, чтобы мы говорили только по-английски на наших английских уроках |
| г) в функции обстоятельства: By listening attentivelywe at last understood everything. On arriving at the stationthey found out that the train had started. He left without having seen the director. After his having repaired the motor,we started. | Нет, перев. деепричастием или обстоятельственным придаточным предложением. Слушая внимательно,мы наконец поняли всё. Прибыв на станцию,они узнали, что поезд уже ушел. Он ушел, не повидав директора. После того как он починил мотор,мы отправились. |
| III. Обороты с инфинитивом: а) в функции подлежащего: The expeditionis expected to come soon. The pilotwas reported to have startedon his flight in the morning. | Нет, перев. сложноподчиненным предложением. Ожидают, что экспедиция скоро прибудет. Сообщалось, что летчик отправилсяв полет утром. |
| I am very pleased to have given you all the information. He does not like to be interrupted. We found the plant to contain 5% rubber. The captain ordered the ship to be unloaded. They wanted the expedition to start on the 1st of June | Я очень доволен, чтодал вам всю информацию. Он не любит, когда его перебивают. Мы обнаружили, что это растение содержит 5% каучука. Капитан приказал, чтобы судно разгрузили. Онихотели, чтобы экспедиция отправилась 1 июня. |
| в) в функции определения: The iron ore to be mined in the districtis of the highest quality. The students' notebooks to be correctedare here. The house to be built in this streetis intended for the workers of this factory. The professors to lecture at our institute this yearare all great specialists. | Нет, переводится определительным придаточным предложением. Железная руда, которая будет добываться в этом районе,очень высокого качества. Тетради студентов, которые надо проверить,находятся здесь. Дом, который будет построен на этой улице,предназначается для рабочих этой фабрики. Профессора, которыебудут читать лекции в нашем институте в этом году,все большие специалисты. |
Tenses
In Technical English the present tense means generalization. It helps to express the core idea. If the author wishes to claim no generality in support of a core idea, he will present info in the past tense. The present perfect shows connection between the past and the present.
Translate into Russian
1. All insulators permit some flow of electrons.
2. He highlighted the headings in bold.
3. We have found no evidence of the process.
4. Net-it-Software has released Net-it-Now.
Passive voice
The impersonality of scientific writings can be considered a typical feature of this style. This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. The emphasis is placed on what is done (what happens to things), not who does it. Impersonal activity is seen objectively.
A test tube was taken and half-filled with copper sulfate solution, then it was heated over. Errors were introduced into the text at keyboarding.
Hashing is a technique in which a mathematical calculation is applied to the key of a record and the resulting value is the location, such as a track number, on a disk where the record will be stored.
Impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with the verbs presume, consider, point out, etc.
It is known that...
It is suggested that...
It is seen that...
It should be expected because...
It was found that...
Who is the doer of the action? Observations show that it is the author himself who, is, implied to be the doer of the action. This must be expressed unambiguously in the Target Language text.
It is believed that this study is significant because... Значение данной работы, по нашему мнению, определяется тем, что...
It is considered / thought / felt / believed
Phrasal verbs
To build in, to set up, to figure out, to shut down, to hang up, to move to, go to, open to, save as, to bring up, to' blow up, to backup, to run on, to log on/off.
Prepositional phrases
Thanks to, owing to, due to, by means of, instead of, according to, in accordance with, in spite of, in the course of, etc.
And word-links
| and, but | therefore | in general |
| both ..., and | hence | henceforth |
| either..., or | however | summing up |
| neither..., nor | thus | consequently |
| rather... than | thereby | provided that |
| not only ., but (also) | whereas | providing that |
| so that | despite | in spite of |
Comparatives
As ... as, not so ... as, the ... the, more ... than, much more ..., most of the ,..., just as, the same as, different from, alike, like, similar (to), likewise (otherwise).
Multifunctional words
They can function as prepositions, conjunctions, and adverbs.
The phenomenon has been investigated sincethe discovery of radioactivity.
Since it was difficult to prove, they made another attempt.
They observed this effect but once and have never been able to reproduce it ever since.
Give your examples with: after, as, before, but, once, till, about, down, through, up, over.
Exercises
1. Isencopepp. 106-118 (to the teacher's choice).
Make it plural
Medium, focus, nucleus, index, addendum, fungus, radius, stratum, phenomenon, hypothesis, axis, synopsis, bureau, basis.
Passive constructions
1. This engine is usually referred to as an internal combustion engine because fuel is burned within its cylinders or combustion chambers.
2. An interesting case involving parallel forces occurs when a body is acted on by two forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and whose lines of action do not coincide.
3. The resistance of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of.
4. A battery or other source supplies a potential difference for the circuit it is connected to.
5. The performance of a given tube depends upon the efficiency free electrons are produced with.
6. Whatever the nature of the tube and the arrangement of electrodes, an emitting electrode is not dispensed with.
7. When a beam is subjected to bending, internal stresses are set up.
8. Freezing points as well as boiling points are affected by external pressure.
9. The magnetron is a vacuum tube whose current is influenced by a magnetic field.
10. In the common radio tubes electrons are thrown off from the cathode when it is heated.
11. Radioactive isotopes offer an excellent method of treatment for many diseases, and are already being widely used for treatment by medical establishments.
12. Electrical circuits were dealt with in Chapter I and this chapter will be confined principally to magnetic circuits.
13. When a body or structure is subjected to external loads, internal forces are created by the corresponding elastic deformation of the body or structure which oppose the external forces and thereby maintain equilibrium.
14. The danger of a whirling propeller is universally recognized, and regulations have been carefully prepared to minimize this hazard.
15. Atmospheric pressure, which is due to the weight of the air, is measured by the height of a column of mercury.
16. The air is warmed by the sun, not directly by the sun’s rays but due to the fact that the earth absorbs the radiation from the sun, converts this into heat, and then transfers this heat to the air by convection.
Sequence of tenses
1. He showed that the rays consisted of three kinds, which he had named "alpha", "beta" and "gamma" rays, after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.
2. Rutherford found that the rays moved with a velocity of twenty thousand miles per second.
3. He proved that the particles comprising the cathode stream were far smaller than the smallest atom known.
4. Joule showed that mechanical energy could be converted into heat and that the amount of heat developed was always exactly proportional to the amount of mechanical work done.
5. Perrin proved that these particles followed the same laws which had been worked out for the mixtures of gases.
6. It was often thought that the principle of operation of a dynamo was quite unconnected with that of a motor.
7. Although no one knew exactly how much uranium would be needed or how high the pile must be before the furnace would begin to work continuously, they did know that there must be a way of stopping a chain reaction.
8. We were told that much attention would be paid to the problem of fuel consumption, as that type of aircraft was designed for non-stop flights.
- 10.The newspaper reported that some hours before there had taken place a launching of a new rocket.
Participle I
1. There being no other traffic, the driver can maintain a constant speed of, say, 60 km/hr.
2. Part of the energy being changed into heat, not all the chemical energy of the cell battery is transformed into electric energy.
3. The water leaves the wheel with a large relative velocity but a small absolute velocity, practically all its original energy having been given to the wheel.
4. The cyclotron may be regarded as a modification of the linear accelerator, the particles being transferred from one to the other at the proper instants by the action of a magnetic field.
5. The positive pole having been brought near the negative pole, the latter attracts it.
6. Two bodies having potentials of 100 volts and 50 volts a potential difference exists between them of 50 volts.
7. The current distribution over the cross section of the conductor being non-uniform, the resistance increases.
8. The traveled distance having been given in meters and the time in seconds, speed was measured in m.p.s., that is, in meters per second.
9. When there are no forces pulling or pushing a body that body must always be in equilibrium.
10. When rubbing a glass rod with a piece of silk, you develop a large difference of potential.
11. Two bodies being placed in contact with each other, the temperature of the hot body falls, while that of the cold one rises.
12. Class A insulation is the most common in industrial equipment, class B and class C being used rather seldom.
13. The critical point is that point on the course which under existing conditions is equally distant from the point of departure and desired destination.
14. An altimeter contains a vacuum box of corrugated metal, one side of the box being fixed, while the other side presses against a spring bar which is able through a system of levers to move the indicator needle.
15. In order to make calculations of power when using alternating current, some definite current and voltage values must be chosen.
16. Members of the delegations were given the opportunity to acquaint themselves with the scientific research being carried on in the former Soviet Union in the peaceful uses of atomic energy, and with functioning nuclear reactors and accelerators of elementary particles.
17. The great majority of transformers are built with iron cores, the outstanding exception being air-core transformers for use at high frequencies beyond the audio range.
Participle II
- When subjected to alternating magnetization, the loop is traversed once for every cycle of the current, and so the energy wasted per second is proportional to the frequency.
- The gas mixture produced by the carburetor is of no value unless it is ignited, and gas ignited quickly produces more force if first compressed.
- Relays, if improperly designed or cared for, may give far more trouble than any other part of the electrical and radio circuits.
- The forces of wing ribs applied to the spar are concentrated.
- This process is carried out until the small cylinder is brought up to its proper pressure as determined by a gauge.
- The booster is usually a coil which has a vibrating contactor and produces high voltage when connected to a battery.
- The voltage induced in a winding located in a magnetic field was investigated experimentally by Faraday.
- If the network has several voltage sources, each branch current is composed of several component currents, each component produced by one of the individual voltage sources.
- When reading a map an airman must be able to interpret the map from the landsman's point of view; he must understand the conventional signs that are the special knowledge of the seaman; and he must recognize those things as they appear to him when seen from an aircraft traveling at high speed through great range of altitude.
- The charged particles gradually pick up speed, revolving in a closed curve along a circular vacuum chamber in the magnetic field of a giant electromagnet.
- The motor designed according to the scheme discussed above, the speed of rotation of the armature is proportional to the rate at which energy passes through the meter to the consumer.
Gerund
1. The main point of a transformer is changing voltage although the power of both sides of the transformers is equal.
2. We know of the velocity of electromagnetic waves changing when the wave front crosses a boundary between two media.
3. After introducing new technology in that branch of industry some changes must be made as soon as possible.
4. The fact of a new device having provided the means of silencing the airplane noise was a new step in the development of aviation technique.
5. In passing from the nozzle through one set of blades the velocity of the steam is lowered.
6. We were informed of a new record of a non-stop flight having been established.
7. The engineer insisted on those reservoirs being used for holding aviation gasoline.
8. The main advantage of this instrument over the moving coil type is that it is capable of measuring both alternating current and direct current.
9. The simplest process of producing metal articles is that of casting the molten metal into a suitable mold.
10. The kinetic energies of the alpha particles are deduced from observations of the distance they travel in the air before being brought to rest by collisions.
11. We know of valve transmitters being divided into two types: self-oscillators and power amplifiers.
12. Because of gas density being independent of temperature, gas tubes have a distinct advantage over those filled with a metallic vapor such as mercury.
Words in –ing
- A common example of a couple is afforded by the forces acting in a compass needle in the earth's magnetic field.
- When a boiling liquid is open to the atmosphere, the vapor escapes into the air as fast as it is formed.
- Every electrical circuit carrying alternating current radiates a certain amount of electrical energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
- By employing a number of amplifying tubes in cascade, almost any desired amount of amplification can be obtained.
5. 5.The transformer being of high efficiency, the power input to the primary will be but slightly more than the amount of power being supplied by the secondary.
6. 6.An advantage of grouping the cooling pipes of a transformer into radiators is the possibility of blowing air over them by means of fans driven by electric motors.
7. The two windings generally have a widely different number of turns, the ratio of turns being directly proportional to the ratio of the no-load voltages.
8. As we know, mechanical energy is transformed into heat, the process being one example of the conservation of energy.
9. The forces exerted against the liquid by the walls are shown by arrows, the forces being everywhere perpendicular to the walls of the vessel.
10. Liquids and gases differ markedly in their compressibility, a gas being easily compressed, while a liquid is practically incompressible.
11. In engineering work in Britain and everyday life as well, the term 'density' is used for the weight per unit volume, the common unit being the pound per cubic foot.
12. All the other factors being equal, the video channel occupied by a three-color television system must be three times as wide as that required for an equivalent black-and-white system.
13. A vacuum bottle is constructed with double glass walls, the space between the walls being evacuated so that heat flow by conduction and convection is practically eliminated.
14. We shall begin this part of the subject by discussing motion of rotation about a fixed axis, for example, the motion of a grinding wheel or the fly wheel of an engine.
15. Scientifically speaking, energy is the capacity of doing work.
16. Generally speaking, doing work on an object simply means transferring energy to that object.
- The Indian method of lighting a fire by rubbing a stick rapidly against another one is another illustration of heat produced because of motion.
- The radiation reaching the earth from the sun does a great many things besides lighting and warming the earth and its atmosphere.
- The electric arc is used for welding two or more pieces of metal, a tremendous amount of heat being present when the current moves from one electrode to the other in a welding machine.
- The temperature at which the melting of a substance occurs is the melting point of that substance.
- The firing of the gas mixture in the combustion chamber is called ignition.
- Various methods of cooling transformers are adopted in practice, depending upon the size and the local conditions.
- Very small transformers are cooled by the atmosphere, no special cooling arrangements being necessary.
24. A sufficient development of the theory of transformation leads to the theory of expanding an arbitrary function in series of characteristic functions of Sturm-Liouville systems.
25. The properties of Laplace transformation that we have derived up to this point enable us to solve many problems in engineering and physics involving ordinary and partial differential equations.
26. Certain integrals containing parameters can be evaluated easily by means of the transformation.
27. In roll size drawings, the drawing number and title are also placed on the back, in order that they can be read when the drawing is rolled.
28. Lines used in making drawings are made up of various widths and types, such as, dashes with long and short breaks, wavy, or jagged, etc.
29. When moving oxygen cylinders have the cap screwed securely in place.
30. The rate of cooling is not important, although rapid cooling may impair the flatness of the material.
31. When considering storage batteries, it is often convenient to use "ampere hours" in calculating the charge and discharge of a battery.
- Iron possesses the property of confining the electrical field, preventing it from being dissipated over a large area.
33. Discs utilizing copper oxide coatings are used for rectification at low voltages.
34. In using wireless for control, instead of turning the electrical vibrations into the movements of a diaphragm which then produces sounds, they are used directly for the opening or closing of switches.
35. From the transmitting antenna the radio waves carrying the program move out in all directions at the speed of light.
36. There are different methods of generating high-frequency current for heating.
37. When the water motor is disconnected from the circuit by closing valves on both sides of it, there will be a high pressure built up due to the paddle wheel tending to force water against the closed valve.
Infinitive
1. If the forces have no tendency to increase or decrease the displacement, the body is considered to be in equilibrium.
2. The number of protons was assumed to be sufficient to account for the atomic weight.
3. We know the velocity of a particle to be continuously changing if this particle has non-uniform motion.
4. The acceleration of an automobile is said to be positive when force is supplied by the motor to speed up the car.
5. One of the most important things for the pilot to know is how high he is flying.
6. For a system of forces to be in equilibrium, each force must be the equilibrant of the system.
7. It is essential for the operators to be screened behind lead baffles and tanks of water which absorb the neutrons produced.
8. As the forces are balanced there will be no tendency for the vessel to move.
9. There is a natural tendency for all carburetors to give an increasingly rich mixture as engine speed and altitude increase.
10. If the valve in the cylinder appears to move too easily, it should be replaced immediately.
11. Suppose a given number of electrons to make their way between the ions of a copper wire.
12. The chief reason for the use of such bearings in machinery is to reduce wear and to simplify lubrication problems.
13. .The most common alternating current for lighting and power purposes is assumed to go through 50 cycles in 1second.
14. .Heat absorbed by a liquid causes the liquid to evaporate.
15. We want you to take into consideration that voltage, resistance and capacity are the three important properties to influence the flow of current in an electric circuit.
16. To cut down the flow of water in a given pipe you need only to shut off a valve in that pipe.
17. To charge an object by induction one should hold a charged body at some distance near the object to be charged.
18. .We know copper to be distinguished by its red colour from all other metals.
19. Attempts to add copper and zinc in alloys for the production of sheet metal are known to have been at first unsuccessful because of the poor corrosion resistance of such sheets.
20. In that experiment the steam pipes are known to have been covered to reduce heat losses.
21. The natural tendency of heat to flow from a higher to a lower temperature makes it possible for a heat engine to transform heat into work.
Subjunctive mood
1. So that an electric current may flow through a circuit, it is necessary that there should be an electro-motive force acting in the circuit.
2. Were there no loss of energy by friction, the motion would continue indefinitely once it had been started.
3. If the core were solid, it would form a closed path of very low electrical resistance, so that heavy parasitic currents, called eddy currents, would be set up in it.
4. He proposed that this fact be used to define a temperature scale which would be independent of the properties of any particular substance.
5. It is theoretically possible that a part of the nuclear energy might be liberated by transforming either the lightest or the heaviest of the elements into others of medium weight.
6. Potential in a point is equal to the work that would be required for transferring the unit charge from infinity to this given point.
7. Mendeleyev found it necessary to alter some atomic weights in order that the elements should fall into positions in the periodic system assigned to them by their chemical properties.
8. These experiments show that when a number of forces are exerted on a body at the same time, each force acts independently of the others and produces the same acceleration as if it alone were present.
9. As an added safety precaution it is suggested that a typewritten check list be installed on the instrument panel of each airplane.
10. If the plates are charged plus and minus, the crystal acts as if it were being compressed by a great pressure.
Multifunctional words
1. Almost all universal motors are of the series type and operate on either direct or alternating current.
2. For all heating and lighting purposes, the two-phase system can be considered as two single-phase systems either of which may be used separately.
3. Radio transmitters will use but one carrier frequency at a time for transmission.
4. Such machines also can be used to supply direct currents from alternating currents, but this is usually done with a rectifier.
5. A two-winding transformer is known to consist of two coils so arranged that the magnetic lines of force of one coil pass through the other one.
6. Radiomen know well that alternating current is the very current that makes radio possible.
7. We know that the electrical system in an automobile and an airplane uses direct current as does also the telegraph.
8. In many instances it is necessary to consider the rate at which work is done as well as the total amount of work accomplished.
9. The processes above involve a change in either the magnitude or the direction of the velocity of the body.
10. Both momentum and impulse, unlike energy and work, are vector quantities.
11. In making up a condenser one has to take into consideration its size, as the amount of charge that a condenser stores, of course, depends on its size.
12. But for the ohms, amperes, volts, and watts the electric measurements would be impossible.
13. One should know that the ohm is the unit of resistance.
14. The higher the compression ratio, the larger the proportion of the heat energy of combustion turned into effective work at the crankshaft, other things being equal.
15. Rigidity in aeroplane structure is almost as essential as strength, for excessive deflection or bending under load may lead to a loss of control, with very serious consequence.
16. The generator cannot begin producing current until its field is generated, but its field, in its turn, depends upon the current that is produced.
17. No flow of water occurs unless there is a difference in pressure, and the greater the difference in pressure the greater the flow.
18. Neither a voltmeter pointer nor that of an ammeter can swing rapidly enough to follow the rise and fall of the current or voltage cycle.
19. In other words, as far as the motion of its centre of mass is concerned, a body of any shape acted on by any number of forces, can be replaced by a point mass at its centre of mass and all of the forces on it can be considered to act at this point.
20. The more easily the electrons can be displaced the less will be the resistance, and the higher the temperature the greater will be the number of current carriers.
21. Inductance is a property of a circuit, just as is resistance, and is therefore possessed by d. c. as well as a. c. circuits.
22. The average value taken throughout a complete cycle is equal to zero, as there is as much current flowing in one direction as there is flowing in the other direction.
Scientific measurements
H2O, 12°C, sg, eg, cm, kW, mm, log, sin, cos, (x), dx, Cl, N, Na, He, Zn, lb, mi, yr, in.
Latin abbreviations
CV, e.g., i.e., etc, p.m., a.m., PS, NB, op., cit, vs/v/, vers., v.v., cf., et al, con, c, ibid, sic, QED (quod erat demonstrandum).
Precision information (PI)
Numerical Literal
figures, dates, indices, terms, names, trademarks,
numbers, chemical symbols, proper names, brands, PR
physical / mathematical support, realia (sociocultural
formulae, etc. words)
To translate Precision Information, you should write it down. If you missed some figures you should use semantic context.
Productivity rose by more than 30% (instead of 32, 3%)
Some 200 clinics were built (instead of 207).
If you fail to note down all figures in a series of numbers, don't worry unduly. What really matters is the order of magnitude. If the treasurer says, "Revenues have gone up from $18,731.55 in 2001 to $20,003.41 in 2002", you will convey this message well enough if you translate it as "Доходы увеличились более, чем на 1000$ в прошлом году."
You shouldn't change Russian proper names for English equivalents. "Nicholas Petrov" or "Маргарита Тетчерова" do not exist. Learn realia and common abbreviations.
PI is less difficult in writing, and more difficult in interpretation.
Always add something new from PI to your basic information/erudition/background knowledge (objective to subjective).
Remember: Terms + PI + Cliché = Business Style
Описание линейных графиков
При описании линейных графиков следует рассматривать важные тенденции или модели. Следующие шаги помогут вам в выполнении этого письменного задания.
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Fig. 2. Energy demand and energy available In Freedonia
Пример описаний линейного графика
Figure 2 shows the relationship between demand for energy find the energy available from fossil fuels in Freedonia since 1985 and gives projections to the year 2005. The energy in the graph is measured in units each of which is equivalent to 100 billion mega joules.
The demand for energy dropped steadily between 1985 and 1990 from 5 units of energy to approximately 2 units. From 1990, energy demand appeared to level off and remained constant at about 2 units of energy. From this time onwards, energy demand climbed dramatically from 2 units of energy in 1996 and is projected to reach 7 units in the year 2005. Furthermore, the forecast is for energy demand to continue to rise in the future.
In contrast, the amount of energy available from fossil fuels increased quite rapidly from about 3.5 units in 1985 until it reached a peak of 6.5 in 1995. From this point onwards it is projected to decline dramatically until it remains constant at an availability f level of around 2.5 units from the year 2000.
The energy demand and energy available from fossil fuels resulted in an excess amount of energy available in the 1990s in Freedonia which, perhaps, was due to the availability of alternative sources of energy. On the other hand, an energy gap that continues to widen is forecast, beginning in the late 1990s. In the future, Freedonians will have to enforce energy saving measures or look towards the use of alternative sources of energy. (Approximately 220 words.)
Exercises
Abbreviate
Acre, hectar, decibel, diopter, light year, meter, minute.
2. Be ready to translate quickly some verbs that are usually used with figures: to amount, to total, to account for, etc.
1. Ущерб составил 60 миллионов рублей.
2. Десятками исчисляется количество фирм, которые осуществляют такие операции.
3. На них приходится почти половина британского экспорта.
4. Таможенная пошлина будет увеличена на 10%.
Conjunctions
As temperature increases electrical conductivity decreases.
The theory is valid as long as it agrees with the experiment.
As its name implies...
The liquid phase b