Unit xiii. Roads: environmental aspect
Pre-reading tasks
1. Translate the following words and memorize them:
| jam crash to avoid curse accident | advertisement wealth to crowd to injure to implement |
Reading task 1
2. Read the text carefully and do the tasks that follow:
The M25, the motorway around London, opened in 1986. Today people call it the biggest car park in Europe. Every morning on the radio we hear about jams, and road repairs, and crashes, and which parts of the M25to avoid. One day soon we will hear. 'There is a traffic jam all the way round the M25 in both directions. If you are driving to work, we advise you to go back home.
Winston Churchill described the car as the curse of the twentieth century. This will probably be true of the next century, too. It can be very funny to compare advertisements for cars with the reality of driving them. Cars are symbols of freedom, wealth, and masculinity. But when you are stuck in a traffic jam, all cars are just little metal boxes to sit in.
Cities and towns all over the world have a huge problem, and no government really knows what to do. For once it is not a matter of technology which is stopping us. If we want to build two-level roads, we can do it. If we want trains which can travel at hundreds of miles an hour, we can build them.
The people who believe in roads say that cars represent a personal choice to travel when and where you want to. But on trains and buses - public transport - you have to travel when the timetable says you can. These people think that if you build more roads, the traffic will move more quickly, but research, shows that if there are more roads, there will be more cars to fill them.
By 2010, the number of cars on our roads will double. Environmentalists are saying that we should put more money into public transport. Cars often carry just one person. If the public transport system works, more people will use it. If trains carry more people the roads won't be so crowded, and car: pollute the air more than trains.
One characteristic of the people of the twentieth century is that we are a race on the move. But it is just possible that soon we won't be able to move another inch, and well have to stay exactly where we are!
| 5000 people a year are killed on British roads, and 40000 are injured. For children road accidents are a major cause of death. | By 2025, just to park all the cars in Britain will need an area larger than London. |
Comprehension Check
3. Say if the following statements are true or false:
1. You can park your car on the M25.
2. There is often a traffic jam all the way round the M25.
3. Winston Churchill thought cars were an awful invention.
4. Advertisements for cars don’t show the reality of driving.
5. We do not have the technology to find a solution to the traffic problem.
6. Some people think that the traffic will move more quickly if there are more roads.
7. Environmentalists think that public transport should be more expensive.
4. Answer the following questions:
Did the article mention any of the advantages and disadvantages of cars and trains?
What are the reasons for building more roads?
What are the reasons for improving the public transport system?
What do you think?
1. What is the traffic situation like in your town?
a) Is there a good public transport system? Is it cheap?
b) Do you have to pay to use the motorways?
c)Do people drive well?
2. Tell each other about a time you were in a traffic jam.
Language Focus
6. Insert antonyms:
a. Public transport in Hong Kong is cheap but in London it is ….
b. Paris has the Metro railway below ground and a large bus system ….
c. People should … and finish work at different time to reduce peak hour traffic jams.
d. City administration tries to encourage people to use … transport, not private cars in the city center.
e. The cost of buying a car can be increased while the cost of public transport should be ….
Vocabulary practice
7. Fill in the missing words from the list:
| average | source | solve |
| transportation | study | routes |
| atmosphere | car | number |
| advantage increase | public transport per | reduction |
The private … has dramatically improved the comfort, speed and individual freedom of movement. The car brought people closer to places of work, … and entertainment.
However, the use of private cars can also be a … of many most serious problems today. The car is a disadvantage as well as an … . It pollutes the …, may be involved in dangerous accidents, and by its great quantity blocks roads. In New York City, 2,5 million cars move in and out of the city each day. The average speed is sometimes 8,1 miles … hour. But New Yorkers continue to drive, just as people in London where the … speed in certain particularly overcrowded … is only 2 miles per hour. Most people believe that the car a necessary part of life in today’s world. Car owner usually do not consider other methods of public … such as bus, train or bicycle.
The only way to … these problems is to reduce the use of private cars. How can we do it? We may … the quality and availability of public transport. Cars could not be permitted in certain parts of the city, thus making people walk and use …. The cost of buying and running a car can be increased with a corresponding … in the price of public transport. The reduced … of cars on the roads means less pollution.
Choose the right variant.
a. The only means of arrival / access to the station is through a dark subway.
b. When her car broke down, she had to catch / to take a taxi.
c. The two buses collided (столкнулись), but luckily none was injured / wounded.
d. There are road works in the center streets and long delays / interval are expected.
e. Only a mechanic could realize/understand the true amount / extent of the damage of the car.
f. While turning a corner at high speed my car hit / crashed a lamp post.
Reading task 2
9. Read the text carefully and do the tasks that follow:
WALKING AND CYCLING
The ease with which people can get to work, shops and other services is an important part of our daily life. Trends over recent years indicate that people have been making longer and longer journeys, principally by private car, to reach these facilities. There is a conflict between lifestyle built around more frequent journeys made quickly and conveniently by car and people's desire for less pollution, less noise and less congestion which harm our environment. We can improve matters in two main ways: by locating shops and leisure facilities in town and suburban centres; and by enabling journeys to be made by modes other than car such as transport, cycling and walking.
The Institute of Transport economics (Norway) has collected information on walking and cycling in Norway and abroad. The information comprises the extend of walking and cycling, risk and traffic safety for pedestrians and cyclists and the environmental gains that would be achieved if car traffic were replaced by walking and cycling.
In Norway, considerably more than 60% of trips of two kilometers are made by car. Replacing some of these trips by walking or cycling should therefore be possible. Public transport is only relevant as a means for trips longer than three to five kilometers long.
People living in areas with developed public transport system walk and cycle more than the population in the rest of the country. This indicates that walking and cycling are much a supplement to public transport as an alternative.
Improving the Conditions
People experience improved health as the main benefit of walking. The most positive aspects of cycling are that it is fun and it is convenient. Other benefits of cycling are getting fresh air and that it is simple, inexpensive.
The most important drawbacks of walking and cycling are that it is inconvenient i.e. it takes too long and there is a limit to the distanced. Other important disadvantages are that it is impossible to carry large and heavy objects and that the infrastructure is unsatisfactory i.e. that the network for pedestrian and bicycle paths is insufficiently developed, it is difficult to cross streets, etc.
In order to implement measures to improve the situation for pedestrians and cyclists, it is reasonable to start from to the infrastructure. Developing the network of pedestrian and cycle paths, widening pavements, improving opportunities for crossing roads and streets, building subways and crossings for pedestrians and cyclists and providing a smoother road surface are measures requested by many for easier walking and cycling.
Increasing Safety
In total number of accidents may increase if trips are transferred from car to bicycle. In order to achieve the goal of increased walking and cycling and to ensure that such travel takes place in the safest possible way, safety measures targeted at pedestrians and cyclists need to be implemented.
Traffic regulation measures such as traffic signals and fences also contribute to reducing the number of pedestrian accidents.
A Better Environment and Better Health
Walking and cycling improve physical fitness and reduce morbidity* and morbidity*.
Pedestrians and cyclists are more exposed to pollution than people in cars. Currently, pedestrians and cyclists contribute to limiting pollution but emissions of air pollutants will be reduced if more people walk and cycle.
Notes:
morbidity – болезненность morbidity - смертность
Comprehension Check
10. Answer the following questions which will help you to make a summary of the text:
1. What does this text deal with?
2. Why do scientists think about such means of movement as walking and cycling?
3. What country is spoken about in this text?
4. Are cars widely used for trips of two kilometers in Norway to get to work, shops and other services?
5. What are the main problems created by cars?
6. Is it possible to replace trips for short distances by walking and cycling?
7. What are the main benefits of a) walking, b) cycling?
8. What safety measures can be implemented to improve the situation for pedestrians and cyclists?
9. In what way is walking and cycling connected with the health of people?
Follow up activities
11. Read the text below and decide which answer А, В, С or D best fits each space. There is an example at the beginning (O).
Example: 0 A tired В irritated С fed D angry
ON YOUR BIKE!
If you are getting ...tired... (0) wasting time looking for parking space, my…….(1) to you is to consider the bicycle as an alternative ......... (2) of transport. Cycling is probably the cheapest and healthiest way of getting......... (3) in our congested city centres. ......... (4) it is convenient and environmentally desirable, it can be an unattractive ......... (5) on a cold wintry morning. It is much easier to ......... (6) onto a nice warm bus or jump into your car, ......... (7) the sight of cyclists as they weave their way in and out of the traffic may fill you with ......... (8) as you sit waiting in yet......... (9) traffic jam. In spite of the ......... (10) that worsening pollution is getting many people ......... (11), causing more and more health problems, and ......... (12) it is fashionable to express one's ......... (13) of the environmentally safe bicycle, it is hard to ......... (14) the danger cyclists face in sharing the road with cars. ......... (15) cycling is not as risky as it looks at first sight, there are more and more accidents involving cyclists.
1 A advice В warning С plan D solution
2 A method В way С means D instrument
3 A on В through С over D about
4 A Despite В In spite С Although D Even as
5 A choice В advice С propose D transport
6 A enter В be С travel D get
7 A even В however С though D and
8 A approval В envy С angry D criticism
9 A other В more С another D longer
10 A truth В reality С fact D event
11 A round В down С over D together
12 A while В despite С as D in spite of
13 A favour В agreement С belief D approval
14 A refuse В criticize С deny D think
15 A Even though В However С Whereas D Although
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
MAIN TYPES OF PAVEMENT
To permit automobile traffic to travel along a road at any time of the year at high speeds and with economic fuel consumption, the road pavement must be of an adequate rigidity, uniformity and resistance to wear. These requirements can be satisfied by means of various combinations of pavement structural layers consisting of different road-building materials. The pavement service qualities, i.e., permissible speed and traffic comfort, are determined mainly by the nature of the surfacings, which can be divided into the following basic structural types, given in consecutive order of their development.
Cement concrete and asphalt surfacings. These surfacings are of high rigidity and high resistance to loading.
The stone aggregate is thoroughly graded, so that the interstices between large particles are filled with smaller chips, and the material as a whole has a minimum porosity (maximum density). Cohesion is provided by the use of cement and organic binders.
In contrast to asphalt surfacing, cement concrete surfacing has a very considerable inherent strength and temperature stability. These surfacings usually consist of separate concrete slabs, measuring 3- 4 m by 6 - 7 m. The slabs are separated from each other by joints which are necessary to allow for changes in length owing to temperature fluctuations. These are expansion joints which contract when the slab length increases, and contraction joints which expand when the slabs shrink. Inserted into the joints are steel bars called dowels which provide for thеpossibility of small changes in slab length but which transmit vertical loads from one slab to the other, and, to a lesser degree, flexural movements.
Apart from sand, stone dust (mineral powder) is introduced into the asphalt concrete, which enters into physical and chemical reactions with the organic binding agents, resulting in the surfacing becoming more resistant to temperature change.
The asphalt concrete surfacing is flexible and should, therefore, be laid over a solid stone base (flexible pavement).
Вituminous macadam - broken stone and gravel surfacing treated with оrganic binders. Owing to the adhesive properties of thе binders, this surfacing is highly resistant to the destructive action of traffic. Such a pavement is impervious to water.
The differences in the methods of binder introduction in the process of construction create the fundamental structural characteristics of the surfacings obtained.
A. Mixing on the road site or in special plants provides for good coating of the chippings by the binder. The amount of binder used is less with this method then when using the method of impregnation. The mixing method together with the proper selection of stone material grades makes possible the provision of stronger surfacings.
The positive mixing makes possible the use of chippings graded in such a way as to form a solid matrix, the density of which approaches the optimum value.
B. Impregnation is the introduction of the binder into the surfacing by means of pressure-spraying over the surface of a lightly compacted layer of uniform chippings.
After the penetration of all the bitumen into the interstices of the aggregate, the surface of the pavement is covered with fine chippings and compacted by rolling. The stability of surfacing of the impregnation is ensured mainly by the wedging action of the chippings, which takes place during the rolling process. Among the shortcomings of this process is the comparatively high consumption of binder per unit area.
C. Broken-stone surfacings and bases made of uniform size chippings (macadam). The strength of broken-stone surfacings is provided by the wedging action which takes place during rolling. The major factor determining the stability pf the surfacing is the friction developed between chippings, also the cementing action of the stone powder formed by abrasion of the chippings during rolling. The abrasion of the edges and the crushing of the stone, in addition to the penetration of mud deposited on the surface during use of the road give rise tо the appearance of sandy, silty and clayey particles within interstices and hence to the loss of cohesion by the surfacing especially during wet seasons.
Broken-stone surfacings have a low resistance to wear under automobile traffic, since the tangential, stresses of pneumatic tyres destroy the efficiency of packing. Consequently, such pavements are used as an independent type of surfacing only when the traffic intensity is low. More often they are used to provide the road with a base laid beneath a surfacing treated with organic binders.
Surfacings of natural gravel or artificially graded gravel mixtures.
The strength of the material is provided by grading as closely as possible to the optimum mixture, keeping the interstices between big particles filled with finer ones so that the material, asa whole, has the minimum porosity. Cohesion is achieved by introducing fine mud and clay particles into the mixture. In humid seasons of the year the strength of the surfacing may be reduced owing to the decrease of cohesion.
The gravel road is the cheapest form of road and the simplest from the construction point of view. It has high strength and stability when does not contain am overlarge quantity of fine fractions, which make the mixture plastic in wet conditions. Pavements of local weak materials and of industrial waste products are constructed in a manner similar to the gravel type roads.
Types of pavements. Depending on the riding quality road pavements are classified as high-quality, intermediate and inferior. When classifying road pavements the decisive factors are the permissible traffic speed and the rate of strain accumulation in them.
Bases beneath heavy-duty surfacings must maintain the required strength throughout the year, without showing any decrease during the wet season.
Bases under the high-quality surfacings may be made of the following types, depending on the required strength of the pavement and the availability of local building materials: broken stone, gravel, blast-furnace slag, cinder and other local industrial waste materials, of the soil used for roadbed treated with binders, i.e. bitumen, cement or lime.
The intermediate and inferior types of pavements are laid directly on the: bed soil, with the exception of broken-stone pavements, which should be laid on a base of soil treated with binders, or of slag or other local materials.
PAN AMERICAN HIGHWAY
Pan American Highwayis a system of highways that extends from the United States-Mexican border to southern Chile. It also connects the east and west coasts of South America, and links the capitals of 17 Latin-American countries. The 29325-mile (47,516-kilometer) system benefits Latin America's economy. It provides a route for raw materials and agricultural products through much of Latin America. The Pan American Highway is sometimes described as running through the western United States and Canada up into Alaska. But neither country has officially named any highway as part of the Pan American Highway system.
Route.The Pan American Highway has four major U.S. terminals: Nogales, Ariz.; and Eagle Pass, El Paso, and Laredo, Tex. It crosses Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and into Panama. The Darien Gap, a stretch of about 90 miles (140 kilometers) of jungle, blocks the highway at Yaviza, Panama. Motorists usually ship their cars from either Cristobal or Balboa, Panama, to Colombia or Venezuela. South of the gap the highway follows the western coastline of South America to Puerto Montt Chile.
At Santiago, Chile, about 660 miles (1,060 kilometers) north of Puerto Montt, a major branch of the highway cuts eastward across the Andes Mountains to Buenos Aires, Argentina. From Buenos Aires, it follows the east coast of South America north to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, then turns inland to Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. Other branches of the highway lead to the capitals of Bolivia (La Paz and Sucre), Paraguay (Asuncion), and Venezuela (Caracas).
Development.The idea to link North and South America dates from the late 1800's, when people talked of building a Pan American railway. But it was not until 1923, at the Fifth International Conference of American States, that a highway was seriously considered. This conference led to the First Pan American Highway Congress at Buenos Aires in 1925.
Organization of the system started in the late 1920’s. By 1940, over 60 per cent of the highway between the United States and Panama had been completed. By the early 1950’s, most of the project was open to travel in South America. An important link in the system opened in 1962, when the Thatcher Ferry Bridge was completed over the Panama Canal at Balboa. The bridge is 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) long and is one of the world's longest steel arch bridges.
Each South American country has financed the building of the highways within its own borders. In 1930, the United States began giving financial support to speed the building of the Pan American Highway between Panama and Texas. This section is also called the Inter-American Highway. The United States has contributed two-thirds of the cost of building this part of the highway. Only Mexico has not used United States financial aid in building the system.
The Pan American Highway Congress, sponsored by the Organization of American States (OAS), meets every four years to discuss the development and progress of the highway system. The congress has headquarters in the General Secretariat of the OAS, Washington, D.C
KINDS OF ROADS AND HIGHWAYS (in America)
There are about 3,900,000 miles (6,200,000 kilometers) of surfaced and unsurfaced streets, roads, and highways in the United States. Canada has about 550,000 miles (885,000 kilometers) of surfaced and unsurfaced roads.
Local and secondary roads make up about 80 per cent of the roads in the United States. Local roads carry traffic within a local area. Secondary roads link small communities and connect local roads to main highways leading to more distant places. Most local and secondary roads are built and maintained by local governments.
Primary highways. The most important roads generally are those that carry the greatest number of automobiles, trucks, and buses. These main roads, called primary highways, connect the larger communities. Most are constructed and cared for by state governments.
The federal government helps the states pay the cost of building and improving primary and secondary roads and streets. The routes are selected by states.
Some highways with four or more traffic lanes are divided in the center with a strip of land, called a median strip. This separates lanes of traffic going in opposite directions and helps prevent collisions.
Another important factor in safety and smooth traffic flow is the principle of controlled access. On fully controlled access highways a vehicle can enter or leave a main highway only at certain locations called interchanges. These interchanges are usually located at main crossroads. Grade separations are often used to separate crossing streams of traffic. In a grade separation one of the intersecting highways crosses over the other on a bridge. The two are connected by sloping, curved roadways called ramps.
With controlled access, no driveways from homes or commercial establishments connect directly with the main highway. Minor roads and streets run over or under the road without connecting to it. Minor roads may also dead-end at the highway or connect with a service road that runs parallel to the highway.
Freeways are main highways with full access control and grade-separated interchanges. Those with four or more lanes are divided by a median strip. Freeways in congested parts of big cities are often elevated (built above surface streets) or depressed (built below surface streets). The term freeway refers only to the free flow of traffic. Motorists may have to pay a toll to travel on these roads.
Expressways are similar to freeways but sometimes have only partial access control. Parkways are roads resembling freeways. But they are built in parklike surroundings with attractive landscaping and scenery. Most parkways are limited to passenger cars.
Bypasses are built to take motorists around cities. Motorists traveling some distance often do not want to drive through small towns or centers of large cities that lie on their routes. Those traveling from one part of a city to another also usually prefer to avoid downtown traffic. The bypass helps these motorists avoid city traffic, and reduces traffic congestion for those who want to drive into town.
Bypasses today are usually built as freeways, sometimes with service roads on one or both sides to serve local traffic.
Intersections are crossings of one road by another. Most intersections are at the same level, so that vehicles going east or west have to take turns crossing with vehicles going north and south. Sometimes roads intersect at odd angles and it is especially difficult to make a safe crossing. At such places the engineer may put islands in the paved area to keep traffic in the proper paths. When two freeways intersect, more complex interchanges are sometimes needed.