Indigenous rights issues

On 17 September 2007 the United Nations General Assembly adopted a declaration outlining the rights of some 370 million indigenous peoples around the world.[28]

Following two decades of debate, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples" was approved. The Declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues which had confronted Indigenous peoples for centuries. The Declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of Indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against Indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters which concern their past, present and future.[28]

The declaration was approved when 143 member states voted in its favour. Eleven member states abstained and four voted against the text: Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States.

Treaty bodies

The United Nations linked human rights treaty bodies are committees of independent experts that monitor implementation of the core international human rights treaties. There are now seven UN-linked human rights treaty bodies, including the Human Rights Committee and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Secretariat services are provided regarding all of those by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Humanitarian assistance

In conjunction with other organizations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.

At times, UN relief workers have been subject to attacks.

Social and Economic Development

The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. It has helped reduce infant and maternal mortality in 100 countries.[citation needed]

The UN also promotes human development through various related agencies. The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944.[29]

The UN annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.

The World Trade Organisation (WTO)

I. Introduction

The WTO exists since 1995 and superseded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was in force since 1948. The Uruguay Round (1986-1994), the latest and largest round of GATT led to WTO's creation. The WTO covers 132 countries, including theleading industrial nations, and is the only international body dealing with the rules of trade between nations. Its goals are to help trade flow as freely as possible, to promote the rules of free trade between the countries and to settle trade disputes. Whereas GATT had mainly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO covers also trade in services, creations and design: WTO brings the updated GATT, the new General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).and the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) together within a single organization.

All WTO members are not allowed to discriminate between trading partners, i.e. if they grant a special favour to one country, they have to do it to all WTO members. Nevertheless, some exceptions, like the establishment of free trade areas (FTA's), are allowed. Further principles of the WTO trading system are removal of trade barriers, like customs duties and restricted quantities, and more competition but also more beneficial for less developed countries, by giving them more time to adjust and greater privileges.

Whether the WTO appreciates regional trade agreements or not depends on the goal of the inter-regional arrangement: Some promote closer economic integration and reduce tariff barriers but others hurt the trade interest of outstanding countries due to protection.

II. Trade policy

Tariffs

Developed countries agreed to cut their tariffs on industrial products by 40% until the year 2000. Then about 44% of all products exported into developed countries will receive duty-free treatment. Besides this, 40 industrial countries agreed to eliminate their import duties on industrial products by the year 2000. All other WTO members also reduced their tariffs and lowered their quotas and cut subsidies and protection for agricultural products. Least developed countries do not have to cut their tariffs.

Agriculture

Although governments agreed to cut the protection of agricultural product measures with minimal impact on trade can be used freely. They include governmental services like research, disease control, infrastructure and food security. Direct income support to farmers and environmental and regional assistance programs are also allowed. Except the least developed countries, all WTO members agreed further to cut their export subsidies for agricultural products.

Trade policy reviews

Individuals and companies involved in trade have to know as much as possible about the conditions of trade. Therefore, trade regulations and policies must be transparent and a reciprocal information exchange between WTO and its member states is necessary.

As there is a close relationship between trade, investment and competition policy WTO wants to facilitate trade, promotes foreign investment and recognizes government's right to act against anti-competitive practice. Since 1996 three new working groups exist: on trade and investment, on competition policy and on transparency in government procurement. The working groups' tasks are analytical and exploratory. They report to the General Council, which will decide about new rules or commitments. Besides this,, the quality of public and intergovernmental debate shall be improved and the countries shall be informed about each other trade policies. All members come under scrutiny: The industrialized countries every four years and the developing countries every six years. The results will be published.

Non -tariff barriers

The trade between WTO members has to deal with various technical, bureaucratic or legal issues, which should be facilitated. Technical regulations and standards vary from country to country the WTO encourages its members to use international standards and helps to ensure that the members establish national enquiry points for importers if they demand national standards. The import licensing should be simple and transparent and traders must be informed about the national requirements. Importers burden to apply for licenses should be minimized.

Besides this, the WTO established a system that gives greater precision to the provisions on the valuation of goods at customs, agreed on preshipment inspection (check price, quantity and quality of loaded goods) and promotes transparent rules of origin.

Moreover, the member states agreed that they would not apply any measure that discriminates again foreigners or foreign products. They also outlaw investment measures that lead to restrictions in quantities, like measures, which limit a company's imports.

Labour standards

The WTO agreement does not deal with any core labour standards. But some industrial countries believe the issue should be studied by the WTO as it provides a powerful incentive for members to improve workplace conditions. But most of the developing nations think this issue has no place in the WTO agenda, as this is only a measure for protection. Nevertheless, WTO members agreed to recognize essential labour standards, which should not be used for protectionism.