Environmental Protection — Nationwide Concern
As a highly industrialized state Britain cannot ignore the problem of environmental protection. The practical results of the state policy in environmental protection include the development of technology to control atmospheric (air) and water pollution, agricultural pollution control; the study of man's influence on the climate, the forecasting of earthquakes and tsunamis, the biological and genetic consequences of pollution, protection of rare and vanishing plants and animals as well as a whole lot more.
The Control of Pollution Act 1974, which applies to England, Scotland and Wales, sets out a wide range of powers and duties for local and water authorities, including control over wastes, air and water pollution and noise, and contains important provisions on the release of information to the public on environmental conditions.
The main risks of land pollution lie in the indiscriminate dumping of materials on land, careless disposal of pesticides and chemicals, fall-out of materials from the atmosphere and the deposition of materials from flood-water. The use of sewage sludge on farms, too, involves risks as well as benefits to the land.
The Government encourages the reclamation and recycling of waste materials wherever this is practicable and economic in order to reduce imports and to help to conserve natural resources. Industry already makes considerable use of reclaimed waste materials such as metals, paper and textiles. In an increasing number of areas there are "bottlebanks" where the public can deposit used glass containers.
There has been a steady and significant improvement in water quality: the level of pollution in the tidal Thames has been reduced to a quarter of the 1950s level and 100 different kinds of fish have been identified there. Discharges of polluting matter into rivers, lakes, estuaries and some coastal waters are already controlled by law.
Control of marine pollution from ships is based largely on international conventions drawn up under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization, a United Nations agency with head-quarters in London. In dealing with spillages of oil or chemicals at sea the main treatment method is to spray dispersant from aircraft or surface vessels, and emergency cargo transfer equipment is available to remove oil from a damaged tanker.
Considerable progress has been made towards the achievement of cleaner air and a better environment, especially in the last 20 years or so. Total emissions and average concentration of smoke in the air have fallen by 80 per cent. London no longer has the dense smoke-laden "smogs" of the 1950s and in central London winter sunshine has been increasing since the 1940s when average hours a day were about 40 per cent less than at Kew in outer London; the levels are now virtually the same.
Transport is one of the main offenders in noise pollution, and control measures are aimed at reducing noise at source, through requirements limiting the noise that aircraft and motor vehicles may make, and by protecting people from its effects. In Britain radiation resulting from industrial and other processes represents only a small fraction of that to which the population is exposed from the natural environment. Nevertheless, that fraction is subject to stringent control because of possible effects on health or longer term genetic effects.
Various methods are used to store radioactive wastes, depending primarily upon their physical form- and radioactivity. Wastes of sufficiently low radioactivity are dispersed safely direct to the environment. For those of higher radioactivity a comprehensive, international research programme is being tarried out with government assistance and with the participation of the nuclear industry into methods of treatment, storage, transport and disposal.
Crime
The US Court System
The courts are the overseers of the law. They administer it, they resolve disputes under it, and they ensure that it is and remains equal to and impartial for everyone.
In the United States each state is served by the separate court systems, state and federal. Both systems are organized into three basic levels of courts — trial courts, intermediate courts of appeal and a high court, or Supreme Court. The state courts are concerned essentially with cases arising under state law, and the federal courts with cases arising under federal law.
Trial courts bear the main burden in the administration of justice. Cases begin there and in most instances are finally resolved there.
The trial courts in each state include: common pleas courts, which have general civil and criminal jurisdiction and smaller in importance municipal courts, county courts and mayors' courts.
The common pleas court is the most important of the trial courts. It is the court of general jurisdiction — almost any civil or criminal case, serious or minor, may first be brought there. In criminal matters, the common pleas courts have exclusive jurisdiction over felonies (a felony is a serious crime for which the penalty is a penitentiary term or death). In. civil matters it has exclusive jurisdiction in probate, domestic relations and juvenile matters. The probate division deals with wills and the administration of estates, adoptions, guardianships. It grants marriage licenses to perform marriages. The domestic division deals with divorce, alimony, child custody.
The juvenile division has jurisdiction over delinquent, unruly or neglected children and over adults, who neglect, abuse or contribute to the delinquency of children. When a juvenile (any person under 18) is accused of an offence, whether serious, or minor, the juvenile division has exclusive jurisdiction over the case.
The main job of courts of appeal is to review cases appealed from trial courts to determine if the law was correctly interpreted and applied.
The supreme court of each state is primarily a court of appeal and the court of last resort.
The federal court structure is similar to the structure of the state court system. The trial courts in the federal system are the United States district courts. The United States courts of appeal are intermediate courts of appeal between the district courts and the United States Supreme Court.
The US Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation and the court of last resort. It consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all of whom are appointed for life by the President with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. The duty of the Supreme Court is to decide whether laws passed by Congress agree with the Constitution. The great legal issues facing the Supreme Court at present are Government involvement with religion, abortion and privacy rights, race and sex discrimination.
Study the following text, a) Extract the necessary information about law enforcement in the USA:
A criminal case begins when a person goes to court and files a complaint that another person has committed an offence. This is followed by issuing either an arrest warrant or a summons. A criminal case is started when an indictment is returned by a grand jury before anything else happens in the case. Indictments most often are felony accusations against persons who have been arrested and referred to the grand jury. After an accused is indicted, he is brought into court and is told about the nature of the charge against him and asked to plead. He can plead guilty, which is the admission that he committed the crime and can be sentenced without a trial. He can plead not guilty and be tried.
As a general rule the parties to civil suits and defendants in criminal cases are entitled to trial by jury of 12 jurors. But a jury is not provided unless it is demanded in writing in advance of the trial; in this case a civil or a criminal case is trial to the judge alone, greater criminal cases are tried to a three-judge panel.
In trial by the jury the attorneys for each party make their opening statements. The prosecution presents its evidence based on the criminal investigation of the case.
The attorney for the defence pleads the case of the accused, examines his witnesses and cross-examines the witnesses for the prosecution. Both, the prosecution and the defence, try to convince the jury. When all the evidence is in, the attorneys make their closing arguments to the jury with the prosecutor going first. Both attorneys try to show the evidence in the most favourable light for their sides. But if one of them uses improper material in his final argument the opponent may object, the objection may be ruled out by the judge who will instruct the jury to disregard what was said or may be sustained. After this the judge proceeds to instruct the jury on its duty and the jury retires to the jury room to consider the verdict. In civil cases at least three-fourths of the jurors must agree on the verdict. In a criminal case there must not be any reasonable doubt as to the guilt of the accused, the verdict must be unanimous.
The next stage is for the judge to decide, in case of a verdict of guilty, what sentence to impose on the convict.
Read the extracts given below which present information on the gravity of the problem:
a) Youth gangs have been a part of Los Angeles since the fifties. Back then their activities were largely confined to petty crimes and small-scale marijuana dealing. But lately the numbers of gangs have become staggering totalling from about 5,000 members lo 10,000. Almost all the gangs are involved in the cocaine trade. "A typical gang might have 200 kids from 13 to 26 years of age," says Steven Strong, the L.A. Police department's detective. "Two weeks ago 30-year-old David Thompson and his wife were stopped by three armed teenagers, who rushed the couple, robbed them and then casually shot Thompson in the head. The gang members pushed the dying man's wife out of the car, got in and drove away."
b) Every night — and in many areas day and night, thousands of police cars patrol the streets of American towns. The list of crimes starts with petty crimes, goes through housebreaking, shoplifting, mugging to be topped by homicide. Entire neighbourhoods are terrorized by mobsters and thugs, many of them are quite young.
c) Just think about how teenagers run away from homes, their own, from caring as it seems mothers, fathers, grandmothers. Why do they choose to look and act aggressive and tough? Take rockers who startle passers-by by the flashing lights of their roaring night motorbikes. Why do they, with their high-school background, have such a lack of thoughtful-ness? Self-assertion? Then why at other people's expense?
Political system