The epoch of romanticism and
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION DURING THE MIDDLE AGES
The Middle Ages (ca. 500 AD -1450 AD) are characterized by a general lack of progress and a constant stagnation in many spheres of mental activity including translation, which continued to be practised in the domains of ecclesiastic science and the church. One of the best interpreters then was the Scythian monk Dionisius Exiguus. Written translation as well as oral interpretation naturally continued to be extensively employed during the Middle Ages in interstate relations, in foreign trade and in military affairs (especially in wartimes). Livius Andronicus took an active part in translating manuals, chronicles and other works from ancient languages. His noble work was continued by the abbot and author Aelfric who in his translation of the Latin work Cura Pastoralis under the English title The Shepherd's Book, performed it «sometimes word-by-word» and «sometimes according to the sense». Thus, word-for-word translation was widely practised in the famous Toledo school in Central Spain (the twelfth and thirteenth centuries). However, in Northern Spain, another school of translation functioned where the «sense-to-sense» approach was predominant and translations there were mostly performed from Greek into Hebrew.
No less intensively practised alongside of the free sense-to-sense rendering in Europe during the Middle Ages was the strict word-for-word translation. By this method the first translation of the Bible from Latin into English was accomplished in 1377-1380 by the noted religious scientist John Wycklif. Strict word-for-word translation continued to be constantly employed during the Middle Ages
TRANSLATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD
The Renaissance period which began in the 14th century in Italy was marked by great discoveries and inventions. This demand of books called forth an increase in translation activity due to which there was soon noticed an ever increasing number of fiction translations. Alongside of this, the birth and strengthening of national European states raised the status of national languages and reduced the role of Latin. Hence, translations began to be performed not only from classic languages but also from and into new European languages. These real changes resulted in a wider use of faithful as well as free translations.
During this period Albrecht von Eyb (translator of T.PIautus' works), Heinrich Steinhowel (translator of Aesop's and Boccaccio's works), were active in Germany. The new free/unrestricted freedom of translation in France was also practised by the noted poet and translator of Ovid's poems Joachim du Bellay, who in his book Defence et Illustration de la Langue Frangaise (1549) also included some theoretical chapters on translation. Another outstanding translator, publisher and scientist in France was Etienne Dolet.
Certainly the greatest achievement of the Renaissance period in the realistic approach to conveying the source language works was the translation of the Bible into several West European national languages. The first to appear was the German Bible in Martin Luther's translation (1522-1534).
TRANSLATION DURING THE PERIOD OF CLASSICISM AND ENLIGHTENMENT
Translator Frau Gottsched recommended the use of dialectal material in translation and practised unrestricted free interpretation of original belles-lettres works.2 These views of Frau Gottsched, G.Ventzky and their adherents on translation radically differed from those expressed by their sopponent, translator J.Breitinger, who considered the source language works to be individual creation whose distinguishing features should be fully rendered into the target language.3
THE EPOCH OF ROMANTICISM AND