GB.Further education- all post school education

Young people at 16 have several options: l)stay on at school until 18 to obtain the necessary qualifications for entry to higher education or certain caress, professions. 2)to leave school but to continue full-time education in different further education institutions: the polytechnics, colleges of further education, of technology, of commerce, art, agricultural colleges, drama schools, art schools— All they have links with local industry £ commerce. British universities are independent, autonomous, self-governing institutions created from former polytechnics under the education reform Act 1988 &Further £ Higher education Act 1992. They are financially supported by the state, the Department of Education & Science has no control over their regulations, curriculum, examinations, appointment of staff...

3 groups; l)The Oxford, the Cambridge, the elder Scottish universities of St Andrew, Glasgow. Aberdeen £ Edinburgh. Oxford is older, more philosophical, classical, theological. Cambridge is more scientifically based. Both are like a federation of colleges, dominated British education for 7 hundred years.

2)The universities in Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Sheffield. The University of London the largest conventional university, established by the union of 2 colleges; University College £ King's College, has many different faculties & departments.
3)The new universities were founded after the 2nd World War, became popular because of their modern approach to university courses. Keele University(1948), 1961- in East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Lancaster, Sussex, Warwick, York. The traditional faculty structure there has been avoided to prevent overspecialization. Polytechnics are centres for advanced courses in a wide range of subjects, take part-time students & serve as comprehensives of further education, take full-time students- their work is of university level (it's the higher education sector within further education) . The Open University(1969) created by the Labour Government to cater for people who hadn't had a chance to enter any other university, those above normal student age(21 & over). No formal academic qualification are required for entry, distance learning. It's a non-residential university, includes work with part-time tutors. The time of staying here is unlimited. Admission to universities is by examination or interviews. Applications are sent to the Universities & Colleges Admission Services(UCAS)- acts as clearing house & info-centre. You can list up to 5 universities or colleges.

13.GB. connect
SCOTLAND
S. is divided into 3 parts: the Scottish Highlands occupies the mountain area in the northern part of the country, the Southern Uplands, covers lower hill area in he south £ the Central Lowlands occupying the wide valley which separates the other two areas.

The Central Lowlands- industrial heart of Scotland. Glasgow- seaport(trade with North America). Textile and clothing production is important, food products, furniture(office equipment are manufactured, (blending at Scotch whisky. Edinburgh -textile,paper manufacture, printing and publishing. Aberdeen -North sea oil; fishing industry. The natural conditions ofScotland have affected agriculture. The Central Lowlands -suited for canning, arable farming -in the east { barley, oats and wheat). In the Southern Uplands - sheep raising.
NORTHERN IRELAND N.Ireland has one of the largest concentrations of man-made fibre production in Western Europe. Textile manufacture -in Belfast. The manufacture of clothing and footwear is .developed. Londonderry specializes in the manufacture of shirts. Belfast -the province's main port. Belfast - textile manufacture, shipbuilding, aircraft production, electrical engineering & food processing.
THE MIDLANDS

Situated in the centre of GB between the South region and Lancashire&Yorkshire. Leading industrial region. Engineering& finishing of metals. Often is called the Black Country due to its mass industrialization. Birmingham -tradition of making guns. Famous articles in gold & silver. Producer of consumer goods. Coventry - motor industry. Wolver Hampton - heavy engineering, tyre production. Leicester & Nottingham - the knitwear

Industry & manufacture of knitting machines. Derby-important railway engineering centre. In the south-west -the Potteries, famous for its pottery and ceramics industry. Much of the region under grass. Dairy cattle -in the wetter west, beef cattle in the drier east. Sheep breeding. Principal crops -wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet. Gardening.
LANCASHIRE

2 major centres: Mersevside (centre-

Liverpool):chemical industry, motor car industry) £ Greater Manchester (Manchester - general engineering,) Due to extensive industrial development agriculture is less developed.
YORKSHIRE Situated to the east of the Pennine mountains. 3 main industrial centres: Sheffield - a wide range of steel goods besides cutlery; Leeds - manufacture of cloathing, engineering); Scunthorpe - steel industry. Agriculture: sheep grazing on. the rough, pastures of area.

THE NORTH

2 main centres: 1-in the north-east near the rivers Tyne, Hear and Tees (Newcaatle-upon-Tyne); 2-in the north-vest in Cumberland (Workington, Whitehaven). Most important is the North -East (electrical engineerings engineering connected with construction work for the production of North Sea oil). Industrial development in the North-West is less extensive than in the North-East. Abundance of water- building a nuclear power station, which needs plenty of water for cooling. Agriculture is affected by the wet climate. Sheep grazing. In the North-East --more beef cattle than dairy cattle.
THE SOUTH ECONOMIC REGION The most important region in terms of

Industry & agriculture. Includes: all the South of England, both the South-East & theSouth-West. London -centre of everything. Clothing, furniture-makings jewellery. London's industries-.electrical engineering/ instrument production, radio engineering, aircraft production, the motor-ear industry. London -centre of the service industries, tourism.
OXFORD: educational centre; a large motor works were built in its suburb.
CAMBRIDGE: its industries connected with electronics & printing. LUTON: a major centre of car production. The Thames valley is an area of concentration of electronic engineering, microelectronics-"the sunrise strip". The South -major agricultural region of GB. Agricultural Specialization is different in:-South West(the main farming activity -dairying);-South East(cereals).
WALES South Hales -main area of industrial activity, centre for consumer & office electronics, automotive components, chemical & materials, aerospace, manufacture of optical(electrical equipment. Tourism. Cardiff (coalmining & iron industry). North Hales is mountainous and industrialization has had little effect here. Sheep raising is the main occupation of the population.

13GB. Give a general survey of the British economy.The main economics regions and cities.Today Britain is no longer the leading industrial nation of the world, which it was during the last century. Today Britain is 5th in size of its gross domestic product(GDP).Britain's share in world trade is about 6%, which means that she is also the 5th largest trading nation in the world. Trade with the countries of the European Union, Commonwealth countries.

British economy based on private enterprise. The policy of the government is aimed at encouraging & expanding the private sector. Result: 751 of the economy is controlled by the private sector which employs 3/4of the labour force. Less than 2% of working population is engaged in agriculture. Due to large-scale mechanization productivity in agriculture is very high: it supplies nearly 2/3 of the countries food. The general location of industry: 80%_Of industrial production –England. In Wales, Scotland & Northem Ireland level of industry is lower than in England. This gap between England & the outlying regions increased because of the decline of the traditional industries, which are heavily concentrating in Wales, N.Ireland, Scotland. GB may be divided into 8 economic regions: 1) the South industrial & agricultural region 2}the Midlands 3)Lancashire 4)Yorkshire 5)the North 6)Scotland 7) Wales & Northern Ireland
THE SOUTH ECONOMIC REGION The most: important region in terms of industry & agriculture. Includes: all the South of England, both the South-East & the South-West. London -centre of everything (called the London City Region). Clothing, furniture-making & jewellery. London's industries: electrical engineering, instrument production, radio engineering, aircraft production, the motor-car industry, London -centre of the service industries, tourism.
OXFORD: educational centre; a large motor works were built in its suburb. CAMBRIDGE: its industries connected with electronics & printing. LUTON: major centre of car production. The Thames valley is an area of concentration of electronic engineering/ microelectronics. The South -major agricultural region of GB.

19GB.
THE MIDLANDS
Situated in the centre of GB between the South region and Lancashire & Yorkshire. leading industrial region. Engineering & finishing of metals. Often is called the Black Country due to its mass industrialization. Famous articles in gold & silver. Producer of consumer goods. Coventry - motor industry. Wolver Hampton on-heavy engineering, tyre production.

Leicester, Nottingham-the knitwear industry, manufacture of knitting machines. Derby-important railway engineering centre: In the south-west -the Potteries, famous for its pottery and ceramics industry. Much of the region under grass. Dairy cattle -in the wetter west, beef cattle in the drier east. Sheep numerous. Principal crops -wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet. Gardening.
LANCASHIRE

2 major centres: Merseyside (centre- On Liverpool: chemical industry, motor car industry) & Greater Manchester (Manchester-engineering, Blackpoll-popular resort) Due to extensive industrial development agriculture is less developed.

YORKSHIRE Situated to the east of the Pennine mountains. 3 main industrial centers: Sheffield, in the south (produces a wide range of steel goods besides cutlery) ,- Leeds ( manufacture of cloathing, engineering) , Bradford (worsted and woolen manufacture) and Scunthorpe (steel industry) in the west, and the number ports of Hull, Immingham and Grimsby Important ports) . York-centre of tourism. Yorkshire Agriculture: sheep grazing on the rough pastures of the area.

THE NORTH 2 main centers: 1-in the northeast near the rivers Tyne, Wear and Tees (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sunderland & Teesside (the chemical industry) ) ; 2-in the north-west in Cumberland (Workington, Whitehaven, Barrow-in-Furness. Most important is the North -East( electrical engineering & engineering connected with construction work for the production of North Sea oil). Industrial development in the Nortn-West is less extensive than in the North East. Abundance of water-building a nuclear power station, which needs plenty of water for cooling. Agriculture is affected by the wet climate Sheep grazing .In the North East -more beef cattle than dairy cattle.

5GB.Outline the Norman Conquest and the establishment of feuidalism in the UK, and futher consolidation of the English state. The main dates in the formation of the UK.
The last of the invaders to come to Britain were the Normans from France. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy, who claimed the English throne, defeated the English at the battle of Hastings on the 14th of October in 1066 and established his rule in the country as king of England. He is known as William the Conqueror. The Normans settled in the country, and the French language became the official language of the ruling class for the next three centuries. This explains the great number of French words in English. The monarchy which was established by William and his successors was, in general, more effective. The feudal system contributed to the growth of power of the state, and little by little England began to spread its power. Wales was the first to be conquered by England. Before they were conquered by the English in the 13th century the different Welsh tribes were continually fighting one another. In 1282 Prince Llewelyn was killed in battle and the King of England, Edward I started a successful campaign to conquer Wales. Eventually the country was subdued, but the English never felt safe there because of Welsh opposition. This explains why the English built so many castles here of which most famous is Caernarvon located in North Wales. At the same time Edward I of England made his eldest son, his heir, bear the title Prince of Wales in 1301. Though Wales was conquered by England, the Welsh continued to struggle for their independence. At the beginning of the 15th century there was a great rising, but the situation was seriously changed when in 1485 - the English throne passed to Henry VII of the Welsh House of Tudor. In 1536 and 1542 Henry VIII brought Wales under the English parliament through special Acts of Union. Since the 16th century Wales has been governed from London. In today's Government there is a special department and minister for Welsh affairs. Since 1999 Wales formed its own Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, which consists of 60 members. Scotland managed to be independent for quite a long time, though the English tried hard to conquer it. In the 14th century Robert Bruce led the struggle against the English, but he was defeated by the English king Edward I and had to hide on an island between Scotland and Ireland. Here Bruce found shelter in a cave. He was in despair. He had been defeated, his friends were scattered, and the English were strong as ever. As he lay on the cave's hard floor, thinking how difficult it would be to win his struggle, he saw a spider above him spinning its web. Again and again the spider slipped from the web, and again and again it climbed up a line of the web until the whole web was completed. The example with the spider gave Bruce new strength. He managed to organize a new army and defeated the English. However, some years later Edward II, the new English king, decided to attack Robert Bruce in Scotland. He managed to cross the border and reach the Bannock Burn or stream just south of Stirling Castle, which was not taken by the Scots and remained in English hands. Here in the battle of Bannockburn (1314) the English were very seriously defeated, and Scotland continued to be independent for the next three centuries. In 1603 Queen Elizabeth I died and, as she had no children, was succeeded by James Stuart, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, cousin of Elizabeth I. With this union England, Wales and Scotland became known as Great Britain. However, Scotland continued to be quite independent in the 17th century. The final unification took place in 1707, when both sides agreed to form a single parliament in London for Great Britain, although Scotland continued to keep its own system of law, education and have an independent church. Today Scotland is part of the United Kingdom. There is a special minister in the Government, the Secretary of State for Scotland. In 1999 Scotland restored its independent Parliament of 129 members. This process which took place in Wales and Scotland is known as devolution, which means granting greater autonomy to the national parts of the United Kingdom.

The main dates in the formation of The British state:

664 – the adoption of Christianity in England contributed to the unification of the country. 829 – the Saxon kingdoms fought one against the other. Wessex became the leading kingdom and united the rest of England in the fights against the Danes. The Greater part of the country was united under the name England. 1282 – Wales actually subdued by the Norman English.

1536, 1542 – Hanry VIII brought Wales under the English Parliament through special acts of union.

1603 – monarshial union of England and Scotland.

1707 – formation of GB.

1169 – Hanry II of England started an invasion of Ireland. A large part of Ireland came under the control of the invadors but there was not much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16^th century Henry VIII quarreled with Rome and declared himself head of the Anglican (Protestant) church. Ireland remained catholic. So Henry VIII tried to force Irish catholic to become Anglican. He punished them by taking a lot of their land. This policy was continued by his daughter Elizabeth I. The Northen province of Ulster became the centre of resistance which was crushed by the English in 1607. After this events Ulster became an area of settlement by protesting immigrants from Scotland and England. The “plantation” of Ulster began. 23 new towns were built in Ulster to protect the protestant settlers known as plunters. The Irish catholic were driven from their lands. The population of Ulster became protestant in majority. At the end 18^th century there was a mass risen against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army. In 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. After a long and bitter struggle the Sourthen part of Ireland became a free state. In 1922 Ulster where the protestians were in majority remained part of the UK. 1998-99 – Devolution (granting of independence to the national parts of UK).

20GB.
SCOTLAND is divided into 3 parts: the Scottish Highlands ,occupies the mountain area in the northern part of the country, the Southern Uplands, covers lower hill area in he south £ the Central Lowlands occupying the wide valley which separates the other two areas.

The Central Lowlands-industrial heart of Scotland. Glasgow-seaport (trade with North America), industrial activity which one of the major industrial centers of Britain with coal, steel, shipbuilding and engineering. Textile and clothing production is important. Food products, furniture & office equipment are manufactured. Edinburgh – is the capital of Scotland; textile, paper manufacture, printing and publishing. Aberdeen -North Sea oil; fishing industry. The natural conditions of Scotland have affected agriculture. The Central Lowlands - suited for farming. Arable, farming is much widespread in the east with barley, oats and wheat as the main cerial crops. In the Southern uplands - sheep raising.

NORTHERN IRELAND is unique Most Ireland has one of the largest concentrations of man-made fibre -production in Western Europe. Textile manufacture -in Belfast. The manufacture of clothing and footwear is developed. Londonderry specializes in the manufacture of shirts. Belfast -the province's main port. Belfast - textile manufacture, shipbuilding, aircraft production, electrical engineering & food processing

11GB Give an account of the main functions of the Parliament outlining the process of passing a bill. Explain the term Devolution and its significance.
The main functions of the Parliament: to pass laws, to provide the means of carrying on the work of Government policy and administration, to debate the most important political issues of the day. Nevertheless, the principal duty is legislation, making laws. In the past Legislation was initiated from both sides of the House: from the government and from the opposition. But in present-day practice almost all bills are brought forward by the Government in power. Bills may be introduced in either House, unless they deal with finance or representation, when they are always introduced in the Commons. The process of passing bills is the same in the HL as in the HC. On introduction, the bill receives a formal 1 Reading. It is not yet printed. The Clerk of the House reads out only the short title, of the bill and the Minister responsible for it names a day of a Second Reading. It is then printed and. published. After a period of time it may be given a 2nd Reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. Then each clause of the bill is considered and voted on.. Then it is formally reported to the House by the Chairman and further, debate takes place. Finally the Bill is submitted for a 3rd Reading. Then, if passed, it is sent to the Lords from the Commons or from C-'s- to L-s. All bills are sent to the Sovereign for Royal Assent, After this the bill becomes a law and is known as an Act of Parliament.

Devolution. The power in Britain was decentralized after the labor government came to power at the 1957. Their program included plans for a parliament in Scotland, assemblies in Hales and H. Ireland and regional development agencies in England.

10GB Discuss the electoral system. Give an evaluation of the "majority electoral system".
The House of Commons is the only chamber in the British Parliament which is elected at General Elections. British subjects and citizens can vote provided they are 18 and over, resident in the UK, registered in the annual register of electors and not subject to any disqualifications. The UK is divided into 659 electoral districts, called constituencies of approximately equal population and each const, elects the member of the HC. No person can be elected except under the name of the party, and there is little chance except as the candidate backed by either the Labor or the Conservative party. In every constituency each of the 2 parties has a local organization, which chooses the candidate, and then helps him to conduct his local campaign, in a British election the candidate who wins the most votes in elected, even if he doesn't get as many as the combined votes of the other candidates. The winner takes it all. This is known as notorious majority electoral system that is often criticized for being unfair to smaller parties that have very little chance to send their candidate to the Commons. It is often argued that the British system of elections is so unfair that it ought to be changed, by the introduction of a form of proportional representation. It aims to give each party a proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it receives at the election. As soon as the results of a general elections are known, it is clear which party will form the government. The leader of the majority party becomes Prime Minister and the new House of Commons meets. The chief officer of the HC is the Speaker. He is elected by the House at the beginning of each parliament. His chief function is to preside over the House in the debate. The Speaker must not belong to any party. G Brown

14.GBThe causes and consequences of the conflicts and divisions in Northern Ireland.
The problem of Northern Ireland is closely connected with religion because the Irish people can be divided into 2 religious groups: Catholic and Protestants. At the same time it as clear that the lighting between these 2 groups is closely connected with the colonial past, in 1169 Henry 2 of England started an invasion of Ireland. Although a large part of Ireland came under the control of the invaders, there wasn't much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16th century Henry 6 of England quarreled with Rome and declared himself Head of the Anglican church, which was a protestant church. Ireland remained Catholic, and didn't accept the change. Henry 8 tried to force them to become Anglican. He also punished them by taking most of their land. This policy was continued by Elizabeth I. But the Irish Catholics never gave up their struggle for independence and their rights. At the end of the 18th century there was a mass rising against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army and in 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. All through the 19th century the "Irish question" remained in the centre of British polities. After a long and bitter struggle the southern part of Ireland finally became a free State in l921. Ulster where the protestants were in majority remained part of the UK. The Irish free State declared itself a Republic in 1949 and is known as the Irish republic of Eire. It is completely independent and its capital is Dublin. Northern Ireland had its own Parliament at Stormont in Belfast and government which was responsible for its province's life. But from the beginning the parliament was in the hands of Protestants while the Catholics didn't have equal rights with the Protestants. In 1969 .conflict started between these 2 groups and so the British government closed the local parliament

and sent in die British army to keep the peace. But there were no peace. On he Catholic side is the Irish Republic Army which wants to achieve a united reland by terrorism and bombings. On the Protestant side there are also secret terrorist organizations.

The Northern Ireland Assembly of 108 members was restored in 1998. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly were held in November 2003.However many difficulties still exist' to make this local parliament a workable body because of the confrontation between the parties representing the Protestant and Catholic communities. The Northern Ireland Assembly was established as part of the Belfast Agreement and meets in Parliament Buildings. The Assembly is the prime source of authority for all devolved responsibilities and has full legislative and executive authority. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly took place on the 7th March 2007 and the Northern Ireland Assembly was restored on the 8th of May 2007.

1GB.Gejgraph.position of Br.Isles- disadvantages and advantages. Continental shelf
The British Isles are situated on the continental shelf off the north-west coast of Europe and comprise a group of over 5,000 islands. Continental shelf is the zone of shallow water surrounding at present the continent and resembling a shelf above the deep water of the oceans. It’s very important for the economy because of exploitation of oil & natural gas from the continental shelf under the North Sea. Politically the British Isles are divided into two countries — the UK of GB and NI and the southern part of Ireland, or the Irish Republic. The total area of the British Isles is 322,246 sq. km, the U.K is 244,100 sq. km. From South to North, from Land's End to John O'Groats, the island of Great Britain stretches for about 900 km, and is just under 500 km across in, the widest part and 60 km in the narrowest: Due to the numerous bays and inlets no place in Britain is as much as 120 km from the sea coast.

From the European continent the BrI are separated by the English Channel and the North Sea. The English Channel in its widest part in the west is 220 km wide, and in the narrowest (the Strait of Dover) is only 32 km. So the islands have had an easy and mainly profitable contact with mainland Europe. However, the separation of Britain from the continent has had a tremendous impact on the British nation. For centuries the British felt safe and secure protected by the Channel and no foreign army has ever invaded the country since the Norman conquest in the 11^th century. No wonder the British are so different in their behaviour from other Europeans living on the continent, despite all the changes caused by modern technology and transport facilities.

The most important sea routes pass through the English Channel and the North Sea linking Europe with the Americas and other continents. The advantageous geographical position of GB created favourable conditions for the develop­ment of shipping, trade and economy as a whole. The BrI in general, but esp. England as part of the U.K., form one of the most densely peopled areas in the world. With the present population of the U.K. of some 60 million, many problems emerge with land use, road construction and city sprawl.

The BrI, apart from the two largest islands of GB and Ireland, include several other important islands and groups of islands. Off the north­western coast of GB there is a group of islands known as the Hebrides, which are divided into the Inner and Outer Hebrides. They are separated from each other by the Sea of Hebrides and the Little Minch. The main occupation of the peo­ple there is farming and fishing.

Off the northern coast of Scotland separated from GB by the
Pentland Forth are theOrkney Islands whichcomprise about a hundred islands. Most
of the 20,000 residents are engaged in dairy and poultry farming.

The Shetland Islandsare situated about 100 km north of the Orkneys. The population of about 18.000 is engaged in herning-fishing. Apart from fish, the only exports from .the islands are Shetland ponies and face knitted from the wool of local sheep.

In the middle of the Irish Sea lies the Isle of Man. From the Middle Ages the island is administered by its own Manx Parliament and has a population of about 50,000 engaged in farming, fishing and tourist trade.

Another important island in the Irish Sea is Angleseysituated off the north coast of Wales and separated from the latter by the Menai Strait. It is a place of a very famous village with the longest place name in GB.Anglesey contains only 52,000 people, and more of the working population are now engaged in local industry than in fishing and agriculture. This is partly due to an increase in tourism and partly to the intro­duction of several new industries, including the operation of a nuclear power plant at Wylfa.

The Isle of Wight lies in the English Channel. It is diamond-shaped, 40 km from west to east and about half as much from north to south. The Isle of Wight lies across the southern end of Southampton Water, and is separated from the mainland by the Solent. The island forms one of the most important tourist resorts in the country. It is linked to London by ferry and rail services. Lying in the English Channel off the extreme south-western coast of GB is a tiny group of the Isles of Stilly, another resort area.

The Channel Islands lie to the south-west on the French side of the English Channel. They are known to the French as the Isles Normandes. The Channel Islands form an archi­pelago separated by shallow waters from northern France. The total area of the islands is 194 sq. km, but the population is over 130,000. The chief islands of the group are, Jersey and Guernsey. Moreover, the sheep are reputed for their high quality wool sent to the mainland. The coastline of the BrI is indented. Therefore there are many bays and harbours, peninsulas and capes on the coast. Due to its extreme indentity the coastline of GB, despite its relatively modest size, is 8,000 km long. The western coasts of Scotland and Wales are very much indented. This phe­nomenon offers economic advantages, giving the possibility to establish ports in these inlets, which are important to keep ships safe from storms and to give them access deep into the country. The east coast is less lofty and more regular than the west coast, and the coastal lowlands are flooded frequently.

Most of the British ports are situated in the wide estuaries of rivers. Of great importance for port activity are tiaes when nsmg water reaches its maximum mark at high tide of 6m in the lower Thames (London), 8.5m in the Mersey estuary (Liverpool), 12m in the Bristol Channel at Bristol.

Living on islands, and therefore near the sea, the British naturally grew into a nation of sailors. Their love of the sea led them to become navigators and discoverers of new lands in many parts of the globe.

2GB The physical geography of the Br.Isles.Main rivers and lakes of GB, climate and weather.
Though England cannot be considered a very hilly country still it is far from being flat.The most important range of mountains is the Pennine range regarded as the 'backbone of England*. It stretches from the Tyne Valley in the north to the Trent valley in the south — a distance of about 250 km.the highest point Cross Fell (893 m), Being an upland region, the Pennines form a watershed separating the westward- flowing from the east ward-flowing rivers of northern England,also a barrier between the industrial areas of Lancashire and Yorkshire on their opposite.Today the area is used for water storage: reservoirs in the uplands supply water to the industrial towns on each side of the Pennines.

Across the north end of the Pennines there are the grassy Cheviot Hilts. The highest point is the Cheviot (816 m).The Cheviot Hills a natural borderland between England and Scotland. The region is noted for sheep-breeding.

In north-west England the Cumbrian mountain,form a ring round the peak of Helvellyn (950 m). The highest peak of the Cumbrians is Scafell (978 m). The valleys, which separate the various mountains from each other, contain some beautiful lakes (Windermere,Grasmere, Ullswater and others).Lake District, the favourite place of holiday-makers and tourists.This region is sparsely populat­ed and sheep raising is the main occupation of fanners, westerly winds and rainfall is exceptionally high, the wettest part of the British Isles.

The south-west region is essentially an agricultural area because there are many fertile river valleys on the lower land between the moors, both in Cornwall and Devon.

The westernmost point of the English mainland is Land's End, a mass of granite cliffs. The most southerly point of Great Britain is Lizard Point, a mass of serpentine greenish rock.

Wales a coun­try of hills and mountains deeply cut by river valleys. The mountains cover practical­ly all the territory of Wales – the Cambrian mountains. The highest peak,

Snowdo(1,085 m),the whole surrounding area is a National Park noted for its beauty.In the south the Cambrian mountains an important coalfield, on which an industrial area has grown, the most densely populated part of Wales. Two relief divisions may in South Wales: a coastal plain in the south-eastern part around Cardiff, the capital and the Upland areas of the coalfield proper.

Scotland 3 major physical regions: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands. The Highlands to the west of a line from Aberdeen to the mouth of the river Clyde. The mountains are sep­arated into two parts by the long straight depression known as Glen More, running from north-east to south-west. To the south are the Grampian mountains, including the loftiest summits on the British Isles such as Ben Nevis (1,344 m) and Ben Macdhui (1,309 m).

Glen More contains several lakes, including Loch Ness. In the early 19^th century the lochs (lakes) were joined to form the Caledonian Canal which connected two coasts.

The Central Lowlands of Scot­land(the Midland Valley), between the Highlands and the Southern Uplands. The Central Lowlands have the most fertile soil, the most temperate climate, the best harbours, the only supply of coal and the major oil pipelines transport the North Sea oil to the terminals of the region: Edinburgh(the industrial giant), Glasgow(major industries of engineering and ship-building). The region is also a major farming area of the country.

The Southern Uplands extend from the Central Lowlands of Scotland in the north to the Cheviot Hills and the Lake District in the south.(agriculture, sheep pastures of the uplands, farming areas of the lowlands).

In N.I(Ulster) the chief mountains are in the extreme north-east:the Antrim mountains(above 400 metres and are composed of basalt). Off the north coast is Giant's Causeway(a major natural spot of beauty).

The Sperrin mountains (500 m) are located in the central part of N.I, and the Mourne mountains in the extreme south-east.

Lowland Britain to the south of the Pennines, offers a striking contrast in many ways.One of the most extensive plains is in the English Midlands(the Midland Plain), consisting of river valleys and plains interspersed with hills.Hereand there you can come across hilly country such as the Cotswolds, the Chiltern Hills, the North and South Downs, Salisbury Plain.Lowland Britain affords best conditions for the development of agriculture, as well as for human settlement.

Wide network of rivers(short in length,but navigable).The mild maritime climate keeps them free of ice throughout the year.

The_ largest river in GB the Severn (350 km) follows from central Wales and flows into the Bristol Channel. The Thames (332_km) and the Trent (274 km) flow into the North_Sea.Flow eastwards to the North Sea: the Ouse,Humber,Tees and Tyne in England, and the Tweed, Forth, Dee and Spey in Scotland.Into the Irish Sea: the Mersey and Eden of England, and the Clyde on which Glasgow stands. The longest river in the BI is the river Shannon (384 km) flowing from north to south in the Republic of Ireland.

The largest lake in GB &the biggest inland loch in Scotland is Loch Lomond, the largest lake of the whole BI is Lough Neagh (381 sq. km) in Northern Ireland.

The weather of the BI is greatly variable. The geographical position of the BI within latitudes 50' to 61°. North is a basic factor in determining the main characteristics of the climate. Britain's cli­mate is dominated by the influence of the sea. It is much milder than that in any other country in the same latitudes. This is due partly to the presence of the North Atlantic Drift(the Gulf Stream), and partly to the fact that north-west Europe lies in a predominantly westerly wind-belt. Marine influences warm the land in winter and cool it in summer. The prevailing winds in the BI are westerlies. They are moist, as a result of their long passage over the warm waters of the North Atlantic.

Relief is the most important factor controlling the distribution of tempera­tures and precipitation in Britain. The actual ts experienced in the hilly and mountainous parts are lower than in the lowlands. The average annual rainfall in_Britain_about 1,100 mm. The mountainous areas of the west and north have far more rainfall than the lowlands of the south and east.

The eastern lowlands are much drier and usually receive little precipitation. Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, although March to June are the driest months and October to January are the wettest.

In Ireland the the rain-bearing winds have not been deprived of their moisture, much of the Irish plain receives up to 1,200 mm of rainfall per year in the form of steady and prolonged drizzle. Snow is rare owing to the warming effects of the Gulf Stream.

Because of the Gulf Stream and predominantly maritime air masses that reach the British Isles from the west, the range in t is never very great. The annual mean t in England and Wales is about +10 "C, in Scotland and Northern Ireland about +9 *C. July and August are the warmest months of the year, and January and February the coldest. The mean winter t in the north is +3C, the mean summer temper­ature is +12C.The corresponding figures for the south are +5 'C in winter and +16C in summer. The mean January temperature for London is +4 C, and the mean July temperature is +17C. The south has much longer periods of sunshine than the north.

The British economy has become increasingly oriented towards a more sophisticated industry with the heavier coal-based industries of the past losing their former importance. Today the country continues to import rare metals such as manganese, chrome, nickel and others which are neces­sary for the industries.

Coal has been worked in Britain for 700 years. However, with the introduction of new sources of power and fuel the produc­tion of coal has decreased considerably and constitutes at present no more than 100 million tons. Yorkshire and the Midlands pro­duce about 60 per cent of the country's output.

Up to the early 1960s over 99 per cent of Britain’s petroleum requirements were imported. Since then considerable discoveries of crude oil and natural gas have been made in the North_Sea. Offshore oil fields are located off the eastern and northern coasts of Scotland and north-east England. Natural gas usually occurs with petroleum. The North Sea gas from the continental shelf accounts for about 80 per cent of the total natural gas consumption.

Great Britain has no large-scale resources of non-ferrous metals. Nearly all of them are imported. However, the country has a great variety of non-metallic miner­als such as granites in Devon and Cornwall; clay, chalk, sand and gravel important for the building industry; different kinds of salt; kaolin, a fine white china-clay used in cotton, paper and pottery manufacture.

The resources of coal and iron ore served the country well during and after the Industrial Revolution. In modern times the North Sea oil and gas play a major role in boosting the development of the economy. Already in the south­western parts of the country where the winds are so prevalent, many wind farms where special installations operating like windmills of the pasti effectively generate power.

Today Britain is the fifth in terms of the size of the GDP (gross domestic product), and her share in the world trade is about 6 per cent, which means that she is also the 5^th largest trading nation in the world. The country imports more than it exports, which results in a deficit in the balance of payments. This deficit is usually offset by transactions on the international market, which reflect Britain's position as the world's major financial centre.

4.GBThe Danish raids on England.The struggle of the Albert the Great and its result.Anglo-Saxon Britain was not a united country. There were a lot of small kingdoms which constantly waged wars against one another for supreme power. These little king­doms were weak and could not hold out against at­tacks from abroad.

Beginning with the 8^th century, pirates from Scandinavia and Denmark began raiding the eastern shores of Britain. In the 19^th century the country had to struggle with the Danes. At first they acted as pirates attacking the country & robbing it, but later they came in larger numbers conquering one territory after another. They landed their longboats, killed & robbed the population of the towns and villages and sailed away. Gradually they began settling in Britain and seized more and more land. The Anglo-Saxons understood that their small kingdoms must unite in order to struggle against the Danes. In the 9^th century Egbert, the king of Wessex, one of the stronger Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, unit­ed several neighbour­ing kingdoms. The united kingdom got the name of England, and Egbert became the first king of the united country. The kingdom of Wessex alone was left to resist the Danes.

Alfred, the grandson of Egbert, became king in the year 871, when England's danger was greatest. The Danes, who had settled on the eastern shores of Britain, continued robbing and killing the people of England and occupying more and more land. Alfred gathered a big army and gave the Danes a great bat­tle at Maldon in 891. The Danes were defeated in this battle, but still they remained very strong and dangerous, and Alfred hurried to make peace with them.He had to give the Danes the greater portion of England. The kingdom that was left in Alfred's pocession was Wessex. There were some years of piece, and during this time Alfred built the first English navy. He worked out a code of laws. He translated the Church history and parts of the Bible from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. He started the famous Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the first history of England. It was lucky for Wessex to have a very talented king who organized the struggle against the Danes. This was Alfred who ruled from 871 to 901, and who eventually defeated the Danes making them sign a peace agreement. Though the country was divided into two parts - one under the Saxons, and the other under the Danes, peace was won and later the English took over the land occupied by the Danes. Danish influence is still felt in some place-names ending in -by, -toft, such as Appleby or Lowestoft, as well as in the presence of some words in the English language. Alfred was also a great lawgiver and a patron of learning. He is considered to be the founder of the English fleet.

The Anglo-Saxon kings that ruled after Alfred, continued fighting the Danes, until all England was once more ruled by English kings. But 80years after Alfred's death the Danes came again with great armies and occupied much of the territory. Again Britain was divided into two parts: the northern part ruled by the Danes, and Wessex in the south ruled by English kings. The Danes continued their attacks on Wessex and finally occupied the whole the territory. In 1016, the king of Denmark Canute became also, the king of England. Canute was a strong monarch and gave England peace for nearly 20 years. When he died in 103B his two sons ruled England for a short time one after the other. With the death of Canute's second son in 1042, the Danish rule was over. An English king came to the throne.

24 religion .Religion has always-played an important part in the national way of life and this is still true today. There is a complete religious freedom in the UK. There are two established churches- churches legally recognized as official churches of the state: in England the church of England(Anglican) and in Scotland the church of Scotland(Presbyterian). The church of England is the national church, it was formed in 1534 by king Henry 8. Who broke away from the church of Rome and declared himself Head of the church of England. But many people considered the church of England too much like the catholic church that it hadn't moved far enough away from the church of Rome. They became known as Puritans, because they wanted pure and simple church. They broke away from the church of England and formed their own churches-The Free of Nonconformist churches. All the main free churches-Methodist, Baptist, Evangelical, salvation army are very simple, as well as their services. They don't have archbishops or bishops. In 1603 the Puritans were persecuted by James 1. The Puritans believed that all worldly pleasures were ungodly. In the 17^th century disgusted by the wickedness of the Old World, a small group of them, the Pilgrims, sailed away to found a new godly society in the New World. And Puritanism still remains strong on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, though it no longer has much influence on young people. British monarchs still bear the title of the Head of the Church of England, as well as the title of Defender of the Faith. The Church of England has two Archbishops-the archbishop of Canterbury, the church's leader, and the Archbishop of York, and the 24 senior bishops who sit in the House of Lords, after them come the remaining 18 bishops. The central governing body of the Church of England is the Central Synod. England is divided into several dozens of districts, called dioceses. Each diocese has a cathedral and is headed by a bishop. It’s divided into parishes headed by the vicar, who often has an assistant, called a curate.
The Presbyterian Church is the established church of Scotland. It’s completely separate from the Anglican Church. It has government by elders, all of equal rank. Presbyterianism is a severe form of Protestantism. The church of Sc. Is powerful and its influence is rather puritanical. Each church is governed locally by the Kirk Session, consisting of the priest and the elected elders of the church. The highest body is the General Assembly, consisting of elected clergy and elders.
In Wales most of the people belong to the Free Churches. 2/3 of the population of NI are members of the Anglican Church and Free, or Protestant Churches, the remaining part constitutes the Catholic minority.
The leader of the-Catholic Church in Britain is the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster. All the UK is divided into 7 catholic provinces, controlled by an archbishop. There are about 6 million Catholics in Britain.
There are Christian communities of foreign origin like the Orthodox, Lutheran and Reformed churches of various European countries, which have their centers of worship. Great Britain contains adherents of practically even world religion who are free to practice their particular beliefs in a Tolerant and free society.

16.GB.The major political parties in the UK. Great Britain has a Parliamentary government based on the party system. When the political parties began to form in the 18" century certain distinguished persons emerged as leaders. Before the 17th century, there were rival groups of nobles who might struggle for power, as in the WARS OF THE ROSES(1455-85) and there were representatives of different religious principles, but there were no political parties in the modern sense. During the Civil war 1640-1660} the division between the aristocratic supporters of the Anglican Church who fought for the King, and the middle-class Puritans who took the side of Parliament, reflected a difference in religious and political principles, as well as economic interests which prepared the way for future party distinctions. In the 19'' century the two-party svstem reached its solid modern form. By the 20" century the two parties were the CONSERVATIVES and THE LIBERALS, direct descendants of the Tory and Whig Parties. The principal source and philosophy of the LABOUR Party was the FABIAN society, formed in 1884, though the party itself was founded much later. The group was led by such intellectuals as Bernard Shaw and Sydney Webb The Fabians opposed the doctrine of class warfare and substituted evolution for revolution. The LABOUR Party adopted this doctrine. The LABOUR PARTY was founded in 1906. After the 1world war it proclaimed its socialist ideas, its socialist programme called for nationalization, equalities of wealth. Today the LABOUR PARTY advocates a mixed programme based on the platform of social-democratic reformism. It has abandoned nationalization and may be regarded as a party centre to the left. In 1997, 2001 and 2005 it won three consecutive general elections thus becoming a party of government with Tony Blair, its leader, becoming prime Minister. Membership of the party is also mixed, though the majority are members of trade unions. Despite the domination of the industrial workers the influence of the middle- and upper-class members of the party shouldn't be underestimated. THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY is the other chief party, it was officially formed in 1867 on the basis of political groups of the English landed aristocracy. In the course of its long existence it has inherited or adopted both political beliefs and political interests. One of the most important things it has accepted are the teachings of John Locke about government and about property. Locke taught that men naturally possess certain weighty rights, the chief being life, liberty and property. One of the characteristic concepts of the CONSERVATIVES is that the state must protect property; and that private property widely distributed is the best solution for society. The modern TORY concept of democracy includes social and economic reform, government responsibility for health, education and social security, and a certain measure of economic planning. THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY has no official permanent programme. Before the general election the party issues a pre-election manifesto which states the main aspects of the home and foreign policies of the future Conservative government if the party wins the election. The members of the CONSERVATIVE PARTY come from various groups, although they are not easy to distinguish. Among them there are the country aristocracy consisting of big landowners, smaller farmers and businessmen in small towns and cities. There are also many working-class people who vote for CONSERVATIVE candidates because they believe in social reform.

As a result of the split in the LABOUR PARTY in 1981 a new party was formed, the SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC PARTY. The two parties acted together in one block in the elections of 1983 and 1987. In 1988 these two parties finally merged together under the name the SOCIAL-LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY or simply THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATS, which is the third most important political party in the country, though not as influential as each of the two noted above. The new party takes a centrist stand in the political life of the country. Its political platform remains vague, it reflects a diversity of views of the members of the two former parties. In the political system of Great Britain the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS occupy an intermediate position between the LABOUR and THE CONSERVATIVE parties and advocate social reforms. The social basis of the party is formed of the middle class intellectuals. THERE ARE A NUMBER OF MINOR PARTIES in Great Britain: the SCOTTISH NATIONAL PARTY, THE WELSH NATIONAL PARTY. There are several political parties in NORTHERN IRELAND: THE ULSTER UNIONISTS ( PROTESTANT and LOYALIST-loyal to London) . THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC and LABOUR PARTY (catholic), The Ulster Democratic Unionists(Protestant Loyalists), the SINN FEIN (Irish for "We ourselves", catholic).

7GB.National traits of the British people and character. Some of the British national traits are resulting from the British way of life. Its geographical position was one of the most important factors which contributed largely to making a distinctive character of its inhabitants. The British are known as a people self-assured, absolutely confident in their national sense of superiority. The British display a very wide toleration of individual differences among themselves, and even among others. The British have some very rigid codes of behaviour, notably the public-school code. Individuals who do not do the right things and do not avoid doing the wrong things soon find themselves rejected. For example, it is part of the Englishman's code not to intrude upon his neighbours and their way of doing things. They have their lives to live in their own way, and he has his.

The British are really conservative, they love familiar things in familiar places. They are against any suggestion that some modification of their habits, or the introduction of something new and unknown into their lives, might be to their advantage. On a national scale their conservatism may be illustrated by the attitude to the monarchy which is held in affection and reverence by nearly all English people. Local corporations, universities, schools and societies have their own private traditions. They like to think that their private customs differentiate them, as groups, from the rest of the world. Self-assurance, willingness to tolerate eccentricity, law-abidingness, a curious mixture of conservatism and enterprise - all these are generalizations which hold reasonably true of all classes of the British people. The English countryside is many things to many people. Every Englishman is a countryman at heart. Many years he may have lived in the city, but he does not believe he really belongs there.
The village with its church, pub, fishing, cricket, animals, everywhere, especially dogs and horses - all this creates an ideal image of Britain. We should also add to this picture the seaside, a passion for gardening and a love for old customs and traditions. The British people may be conservative about the times they take their holiday, but they have shown themselves very ready to take to new places. Each year more English people go to different parts of continental Europe. Many take their cars, with tents and caravans, others use the travel agents' scheme for group travel and hotel booking. Most people in Britain work a five-day week, from Monday to Friday. Schools, colleges and universities are also closed on Saturdays and Sundays.

On Saturday afternoon the most important sporting events of the week take place - football, rugby, horse-racing and other sports. Some people go and watch, others sit and watch the sports programmes on television. The British are great lovers of competitive sports. Saturday evening is the favourite time for parties, dances, going to the pictures or the theatre, in fact for "going out" generally. If the weather is fine, people may decide to go out for the day. Organized amateur cricket is played between club teams. Rugby is very popular at schools where they have good playing fields for that. Golf & tennis are played by great numbers of people. Another popular game is bingo or lotto, which is usually played in halls or former cinemas. Hunting is a popular sport among the rich.

Sunday is the day when most people are engaged in some activity such as gardening, washing the car, taking the dog for a walk. Another most popular activity on this day consists of a visit to a pub -either a walk to the local pub, or often nowadays a drive to a more pleasant country pub.

The usual meals peculiar to Britain are the English breakfast (early morning), lunch (midday), afternoon tea (4.00-5.00 p.m.) and dinner (7.00-9.00 p.m.)

BREAKFAST is generally a bigger meal than they have on the Continent. The usual English breakfast is porridge or cereals with milk or cream and sugar, bacon and eggs, jam or marmalade with buttered toast, and tea or coffee.

LUNCH is generally eaten about one o’clock. When at home they have cold meat, potatoes, salad and pickles, with a pudding or fruit to follow. Sometimes they may have a mutton chop, or steak and chips, followed by biscuits and cheese. Some people like a glass of light beer with lunch.

AFTERNOON TEA is a sociable sort of thing. Tin classic afternoon tea consists of small sandwiches, bread, butter and jam, scones, sponge cakes, biscuits and sometimes buttered crumpets.

DINNER (7.00-9.00 p.m.) is the ordinary evening meal for sonic middle-class people. Lower class people call it supper. Dinner usually begins with soup, which is followed by fish, roast chicken, potatoes and vegetables, a sweet, fruit and nuts. Coffee and cigarettes are served in the sitting-room.

SUPPER (9.00-10,00 p.m.) is usually a light snack and may include an omelette or sausages, sometimes bacon and eggs and sometimes just bread and cheese, a cup of coffee or cocoa and fruit.

6GB(2). Urban and rural population. The conurbations.Population density: in England — 363 people to the square km. In Wales-142, in Scotland - 65, in Northern Ireland - 125. The Highlands of Scotland, the northern Pennines and mountainous Wales - are very sparsely populated. The most highly populated regions are the industrial districts: South- East England with Greater London, the Midlands, Lancashire, West Yorkshire, South Hales, , Clydeside in Scotland and North-East England. The population of England is and has been for centuries, greater than that of all other parts of Britain. The distribution of the British population: England population-49,997p, area 130,439, density - 383p per km2; Wales - 2,946p, area 20,76, density - 142, Scotland - 5,1p, area 78,772, density - 65, NI - l,698p, area 14,121, density - 125; UK -59,756, area 244,100, density -246.

As regards the proportion of urban population Britain probably holds the first place in the world. Over 90% of its population live in towns. In Britain there are 91 towns with the population of over 100 thousand people. About one third of the country's population is concentrated in the town districts, which comprise numerous merged towns and are called conurbations. The seven major metropolitan areas which have been denoted as 'conurbations' are: Greater London, Central Clydeside, Merseyside, south-East Lancashire, Tyneside, the West Midlands and West Yorkshire

These regions are famous for their poor and worn out residential districts and high population density and narrow streets of old towns and cities. They create very serious problems, including traffic congestion. The proportion of residents in Greater London and most of the metropolitan areas of England has recently been falling. People have tended to leave city centres and conurbations because of their unhealthy environment, although such migration may not necessarily mean a change of job but rather an increase in the distance of travel to and from work. In other cases it has been a consequence of falling employment in city centres. More than 1.5 million people left major British cities during the 10 years between the censuses of 1971 and 1981 Greater London's population fell by 756,000 to under 7 million for the first time since 1901. In some districts of London, such as Kensington and Chelsea the population fell by almost 30 per cent. Among the many reasons are the unhealthy environment, transport congestion, noise pollution, poor municipal services, the growing crime rate. Soaring rents and high unemployment are also important factors which drive the people out of the big cities.

In general about half the population lives in a belt across South Lancashire and west Yorkshire at one end, and the London area at the other, having the industrialized Midlands at its centre. Other areas with large populations are: the central lowlands of Scotland; north-east England from north of the river Tyne down to the river Tees; south-west Wales; the Bristol area, and the English Channel coast from Poole, in Dorset, eastwards. Less densely populated areas are the eastern fringes of England.
Rural settlements of Great Britain differ from the traditional villages situated in other countries. They are located not far from towns and resemble their suburbs. They are inhabited by farm workers, clergymen, teachers, shop­keepers, old-age people. Lately there has been a strong influx of townsmen to villages, where houses are cheaper. Farmers do not live in such places. The farmers live in isolated farms scattered ail over the farm land.

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Americans seem strangely oblivious to historic developments in Europe these days that could mean a profound change in this country’s relations with Europe as a whole, and with Britain in particular. The process of European integration is reaching a new stage, with not only Economic and Monetary Union but also the beginning of a common security and defense policy. No one seriously questions the wisdom and enlightened statesmanship of the U.S. policy that has supported European integration over many decades. But the contemporary phase of that process is bringing us into uncharted territory. It raises major questions about the future cohesion of the Atlantic Alliance and about the future of the "special relationship" that the United States has long enjoyed with Britain.The Anglo-American tradition embodies a very special conception of political and economic liberty, as well as a certain seriousness about international security and, indeed, about the moral unity of the West. These Anglo-American values as thoroughly vindicated by history and, therefore, worthy of the most vigorous defense.

Since the Eisenhower era, the United States has been urging Britain into Europe, initially to strengthen the resolve of the Europeans as Cold Warriors and more recently out of habit and to be a force for good government in Europe. Today, all polls in Britain show that about 70% of people in the U.K. do not want to go farther into the EU, although about half believe that the country may ultimately do so anyway. EUROPE helped bring down two of Britain’s recent prime ministers, Margaret Thatcher and John Major. But at least they were casualties of weighty conflicts over their country’s future in the European Union (EU). On June 4th Gordon Brown may be mortally wo