Explanations and definitions

Texts containing technical terminology frequently contain definitions and explanations. This is particularly the case if the text is aimed at non-experts or students of technical subjects, or if the purpose of the text is to inform specialists about new developments.

1 Common words and expressions used in definitions or explanations are listed below.

is/are by ... we mean

means by ... is meant

is taken to be in other words

denotes that is (to say)

is/can be defined as

Examples:

1 A computer is an electronic device.

2 Printers are output devices.

3 The term computer refers to the processor plus the internal memory.

4 A microchip can be defined as a tiny piece of silicon or similar material carrying an integrated circuit.

5 By peripherals we mean those devices attached to the computer.

2 Some definitions and explanations give further distinguishing characteristics by means of a defining relative clause.

Examples:

1 A computer is an electronic device which/that processes information.

2 Tapes and disks are memory devices which/that can be stored away for future use.

3 A programmer is a person who/that prepares programs to solve problems.

4 The arithmetic-logical unit is the part of the CPU where arithmetic and decision-making operations are done.

Note: The relative pronouns used in this type of definition or explanatidn will be who or that for people, when for^-a period of time, where for a place or location, and that or which for things.

3 Another way of defining or explaining is to use a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause separated from the rest of the sentence by commas or dashes.

		Examples: 1 Computers — electronic devices for processing information — are now used in practically every aspect of life. (noun phrase) 2 Turnkey systems, complete hardware/software products which are ready for use, are available from many suppliers. (clause)
Exercise 1		Study the following definitions. A definition usually includes three parts: the term to be defined, the group it belongs to, and the characteristics which distinguish it from other members of the group.

Term		Group Characteristics

A core is a ferrite ring

which is capable of being either magnetized or demagnetized.

Silicon is a non-metallic with semiconductor

element characteristics.

Now analyse the following definitions and identify the different parts:

a by circling the term

bby underlining the group once

cby underlining the characteristics twice.

Example: A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metallic cores.

1 Input is the information presented to the computer.

2 The term 'computer' includes those parts of hardware in which calculations and other data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed interval memory in which data and calculations are stored during actual executions of programs.

3 A 'system' is a mixture of integrated parts working together to form a useful whole.

4Large computer systems, or mainframes, as they are referred to in the field of computer science, are those computer systems found in computer installations processing immense amounts of data.

Exercise 2

Now read the following sentences, which have all appeared in previous units, and analyse them in the same way as you did in Exercise 1. 1 The part of the processor which controls data transfers between the various input and output devices is called the control unit. (Unit 1) 2 A modem is a device which serves a dual purpose because it acts as a MOdulator (digital to analog) and a DEModulator (analog to digital) ... (Unit 3) 3 The compiler is a systems program which may be written in any language, but the compiler's operating system is a true systems program which controls the central processing unit (CPU), the input, the output, and the secondary memory devices. (Unit 4) 4A variable is a quantity that is referred to by name, such as a, b, c, d,and averagein the above program. (Unit 4) 5A WAN is a network connected over long-distance telephone lines. (Unit 6)

6 ...a LAN is a localized network, usually in one building or in a group of buildings close together. (Unit 6)

7A computer virus — an unwanted program that has entered your system without you knowing about it — has two parts, which I'll call the infector and the detonator. (Unit 7)

8There are actually two kinds of antivirus programs: virus shields, which detect viruses as they are infecting your PC, and virus scanners, which detect viruses once they've infected you. (Unit 7)

Robotics

	Start-up What function do you think each of these robots performs?
Task 1a

Listening

You are going to hear a recorded guide to an exhibition on robotics, which begins with a brief history of robotics. The table below summarizes the history, but the events are in the wrong order. As you listen, match each event with the correct year.

Year Event

1 1921 a'Shakey': mobile robot at Stanford Research Institute

21954 bPerambulating vehicle: successful four-legged vehicle at

Tokyo Institute of Technology

31967 cCzech playwright, Karel 'Capek, brings his play, RUR

(Rossum's Universal Robots), to London

41967-9 dOne-legged hopping machine at Carnegie-Mellon University

51980 eGeorge Devol develops first programmable robot

61983 fQuadruped personnel carrier at General Electric

71984 gOdetics Inc. develop a six-legged robot

Listen again and decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to the information in the recording. If you think a statement is false, change it to make it true.

1I I The history of robotics begins only in the twentieth century.

2I I In ‘Capek's play, RUR, the robots become the masters and the humans become their servants.

3I Today's industrial robots developed out of the work done by George Devol.

4 II Shakey used bump detectors, a sonar range finder, and a video camera to avoid obstacles and move freely.

5Shakey had a built-in computer which controlled all its movements.

6 __The success of GEC's four-legged machine depended on the skill of its

driver.

7 flThe robot developed at the Tokyo Institute of Technology functioned completely automatically, with no human control.

8 __Odetics Inc.'s Odex I model did not need to be connected to a separate

power-source.

Reading

Some jobs are suitable for robots, while some must be done by people. Make two lists in the table below.

Types of jobs suitable for robots Types of jobs done by humans

Now read this text to see if the author agrees with your ideas.

The robotics revolution

M

any of the robots in use today do jobs that are especially difficult for human

workers. These are the types of jobs

5 that require great strength or pose danger. For example, robots are particularly useful in the auto-manufacturing industry where parts of automobiles must be welded

10 together. A welding tool used by a human worker weighs about 100 pounds or more and is difficult to handle. As mechanical supermen, robots may be called upon to do

15 anything from moving heavy components between workstations on a factory floor to carrying bags of cement.

Spray painting is another task

20 suited to robots because robots do not need to breathe. Unlike human painters, they are unaffected by the poisonous fumes. Robots are better at this task, not because they are

25 faster or cheaper than humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot.

Third in the list of useful jobs for
robots is the assembly of electronic

30 parts. Robots shine at installing chips in printed circuit boards because of a capability that robots have that people don't. A robot, once properly programmed, will not

35 put a chip in the wrong place. This automatic accuracy is particularly valuable in this kind of industry because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.

40 Earlier robots were usually blind

and deaf but newer types of robots are fitted with video cameras and other sensing devices that can detect heat, texture, size, and

45 sound. These robots are used in space projects, nuclear reactor stations, and underwater exploration research.

In their efforts to expand the

50 range of robotic applications, researchers are looking beyond traditional designs to examine a variety of potential models from the biological world. The industrial arm

55 is a classic example. Scientists have

been able to model robots to imitate the vertebrate spine of a snake in order to paint the

interior of automobiles. They

60 have simulated the muscle structure and movement of an elephant's trunk in an attempt to create a robotic arm capable of lifting heavy objects. Scientists

65 have also emulated the flexibility of an octopus where the

tentacles can conform to the fragile objects of any shape and hold them with uniform, gentle

70 pressure. A variation of this

design can be used to handle animals, turn hospital patients in

their beds, or lift a small child.

The challenge of equipping

75 robots with the skills to operate independently, outside of a factory or laboratory, has taxed

the ingenuity and creativity of academic, military, and

so industrial scientists for years.

Simply put, robot hands — like robot legs, or eyes, or reasoning powers — have a long way to go before they can approach what

85 biological evolution has

achieved over the course of hundreds of millions of years. Much more will have to happen in laboratories around the world

so before robots can be compared to nature's handiwork.

In the meantime, the robotics revolution is already beginning to change the kind of work that

95 people do. The boring and
dangerous jobs are now

assumed by robots. By the turn of the century, more and more humans will be required for tasks

loo that machines cannot do. There are some industrialists who hope

that by the year 2000 all their employees will be knowledge workers, no longer standing on

105 assembly lines but rather sitting at desks and computer terminals to deal with information. These changes are already under way, and their pace accelerates every

no year.

Vocabulary

welded (1. 9) — (of pieces of metal) joined together by heating shine at (1. 30) — do very well at

octopus (1. 66) — sea-animal with eight arms (tentacles) has taxed (1. 77) — has made heavy demands on

moms________ Task 5
		Summarize the reasons that certain jobs and environments are suitable for robots by completing the table below.
			Job or environment Reason
			Welding Carrying components, etc.
		Spray painting Assembling components
		In nuclear reactors, underwater, etc.

Task 6These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions.

1About 100 pounds.

2Because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.

3In space projects, for example.

4They are examining the potential of certain biological models.

5No, they cannot be compared yet.

6They will be doing intellectual rather than manual work.

Task 7Fill in this table with details of the animals mentioned in the text.

1 2 3

Animal

Aspect being emulated _____________

Reason

Task 8

Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words in the text which have a similar meaning to: 1manipulate (lines 10-15) 2correcting (lines 35-40) 3expensive (lines 35-40) 4increase (lines 45-50) 5copy (lines 55-60) 6reproduced artificially (lines 60-65) 7easily damaged (lines 65-70) 8gets faster (lines 105-110)

Writing

Task 9Translate the sixth paragraph (beginning 'The challenge of equipping

robots...') into your own language.

Speaking

Look carefully at the table below showing past, present, and future applications of robotic systems, then discuss the following questions:

1Do you agree with the predictions made?

2What are the implications for society if these predictions become reality?