Types of legal professions in great britain

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: increase, make a will, defend, prosecute, represent, wear wigs and gowns, proceeding, at random, evidence, guilty, innocent, coroner, violent, deel with, petty crimes, matrimonial matters, divorce, recover debts, remote.

There are about 50000 solicitors, a number which is rapidly increasing, and they make up by far the largest branch of the legal profession in England and Wales. They are found in every town, where they deal with all the day-today work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling houses, making wills, etc. Solicitors also work on court cases for their clients, prepare cases for barristers to present in the higher courts, and may represent their client in a Magistrates' court.

There are about 5000 barristers who defend or prosecute in the higher courts. Although solicitors and barristers work together on cases, barristers specialize in representing clients in court and the training and career structures for the two types of lawyer are quite separate. In court, barristers wear wigs and gowns in keeping with the extreme formality of the proceedings. The highest level of barristers have the title QC (Queen's Counsel).

There are a few hundred judges, trained as barristers, who preside in more serious cases. There is no separate training for judges.

A jury consist of twelve people ('jurors'), who are ordinary people chosen at random from the Electoral Register (the list of the people who can vote in elections). The jury listen to the evidence given in court in certain criminal cases and decide whether the defendant is guilty or innocent. If the person is found guilty, the punishment is passed by the presiding judge. Juries are rarely used in civil cases.

There are about 30000 magistrates (Justices of the Peace or JPs), who judge cases in the lower courts. They are usually unpaid and have no formal legal qualifications, but they are respectable people who are given some training.

Coroners have medical or legal training (or both), and inquire into violent or unnatural deaths.

Clerks look after administrative and legal matters in the courtroom.

England is almost unique in having two different kinds of lawyers with separate jobs in the legal system. The two kinds of lawyers are solicitors and barristers.

If a person has a legal problem he will go and see a solicitor. Almost every town will have one. In fact there are 50000 solicitors in Britain and the number is increasing.

Many problems are dealt with exclusively by a solicitor. For instance, the solicitor deals with petty crimes and some matrimonial matters in Magistrates' Courts. He prepares the case and the evidence. He actually speaks in Court for you.

In a civil action he can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of the divorce or recovering some debts. In the County Court the solicitor wears a black gown over his ordinary clothes.

A solicitor also deals with matters outside Court. He does the legal work involved in buying a house, for instance. He writes legal letters for you and carries on legal arguments outside Court. If you want to make a will the best man to advise you is a solicitor.

To qualify as a solicitor a young man or a woman joins a solicitor as a 'clerk' and works for him whilst studying part time for the 'Law Society' exams. Interestingly enough, it is not necessary for you to go to the university. When you have passed all the necessary exams you can 'practice' which means you can start business on your own.

Barristers are different from solicitors. Barristers are experts in the interpretation of the law. They are called in to advice on really difficult points. The barrister is also an expert on advocacy (the art of presenting cases in Court). Indeed, if you desire the representation in any Court except the Magistrates' Court you must have a barrister with one or two exceptions.

Barristers are rather remote figures. If you need one, for instance, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in what are known as chambers, often in London. They all belong to institutions called Inns of Court, which are ancient organizations rather like exclusive clubs. In many ways the remoteness they have and the job they do are medieval in conception.

To qualify as a barrister you have to take the examinations of the Bar Council. These are different from solicitors' examinations. There are over 5000 barristers in England. A good one can earn 30000 pounds a year. Only barristers can become judges in English Court above a Magistrates' Court.

Answer the questions:

1. What kind of problems does a solicitor deal with?

2. How do you qualify as a solicitor?

3. What are barristers experts in?

4. How can you have a barrister for your case?

5. What do you know about jury?

UNIT 2

JURY SERVICE

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: trial, judge, make decisions, witness, legal issues, courtroom, in order to, keep an open mind, common sense, fair, prejudice, impartial, with regard to, decline, libel, fraud, summon, randomly, electoral register, deliberations, acquit, liable for.

The right to trial by a jury of our fellow citizens is one of our most important rights and is guaranteed by the Constitutions of the United States. By serving on a jury, then, you are helping to guarantee one of our most important freedoms.

Your job as a juror is to listen to all the evidence presented at trial and to 'decide the facts' - that is, to decide what really happened. The judge, on the other hand, 'decides the law' - that is, makes decisions on legal issues that come up during the trial. For example, the judge may have to decide whether one lawyer may ask a witness a certain question. You should not try to decide these legal issues, sometimes you will even be asked to leave the courtroom while they are being decided. Both your job and that of the judge must be done well if our system of trial by jury is to work. In order to do your job you do not need special knowledge or ability. It is enough that you keep an open mind, concentrate on the evidence being presented, use your common sense, and be fair and honest. Finally, you should not be influenced by sympathy or prejudice: it is vital that you be impartial with regard to all people and ideas.

Trial by jury is an ancient and important feature of English justice. Although it has declined in civil cases (except for libel and fraud), it is the main element in criminal trials in the crown court. Jury membership was once linked to the ownership of property, which resulted in the male and middle class dominance. But now most categories of British residents are obliged to undertake jury service when summoned.

Before the start of the criminal trial in the crown court, 12 jurors are chosen from the list of some 30 names randomly selected from the local electoral registers. They listen to the evidence at the trial and give their verdict on the facts, after having been isolated in a separate room for their deliberations. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the verdict may be "guilty" or "not guilty", the latter resulting in acquittal. Until 1967 the verdict had to be unanimous. But now the judge will accept a majority verdict after the jury has deliberated for more than two hours provided that, in the normal jury of 12 people, there are no more than two dissenters.

If the jury acquits the defendant, the prosecution has no right of appeal and the defendant cannot be tried again for the same offence.

A jury is independent of the judiciary. Any attempt to interfere with a jury is a criminal offenqe. Potential jurors are put on a panel before the start of the trial. In England and Wales the prosecution and the defense may challenge individual jurors on the panel, giving reasons for doing so. In Scotland the prosecution or defense may challenge up to three jurors without reason. In Northern Ireland each (defendant has the right to challenge up to 12 potential jurors without giving a reason.

People between the ages of 18 and 70 whose names appear on the electoral register, with certain exceptions, are liable for jury service and their names are chosen at random. Ineligible people include, for example, judges and people who have within previous ten years been members of the legal profession or the police, prison or probation services. People convicted of certain offences within the previous ten years cannot serve on a jury.

Answer the questions:

1. What is the job of a juror?

2. What is the job of a judge?

3. What qualities should a good juror have?

4. How are jurors chosen?

5. What people are liable for jury service?

UNIT 3

CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: diverse, security, maintain, custody, cell, bars, search, inmate, to prevent escape, thievery, assault, rape, penal institutions, convicted offenders, attain, conscientious performance, deprive of liberty, treat with, dignity, squalid, suicide, detain, commit crime, release from prison, substantial.

Modern prisons are quite diverse, but it is possible to make some generalizations about them. In all but minimum-security prisons the task of maintaining physical custody of the prisoners is usually given the highest priority is likely to dominate all other concerns. Barred cells and locked doors, periodic checking of cells, searches for contraband, and detailed regulations of inmates' movements about the prison are all undertaken to prevent escapes. In order to forestall thievery, drug and alcohol use, violent assaults, rapes, and other types of prison crime, the inmates are subjected to rules governing every aspect of life; these do much to give the social structure of the prison its authoritarian character.

The need to maintain security within prisons has prompted many countries to separate their penal institutions into categories of maximum, medium and minimum security. Convicted offenders are assigned to a particular category on the basis of the seriousness or violent nature of their offence, the length of their sentence, their proneness to escape and other considerations. Within a prison, the inmates are often classified into several categories and housed in corresponding cellblocks according to the security risk posed by each individual. Younger offenders are usually held in separate penal institutions that provide a stronger emphasis on treatment and correction.

Prisons generally succeed in the twin purposes of isolating the criminal from society and punishing him for his crime, but the higher goal of rehabilitation is not as easily attained. An offender's time in prison is usually reduced as a reward for good behavior and conscientious performance at work. The privilege of receiving visits from family members and friends from the outside world exists in almost all penal systems.

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights declares that 'all persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and respect for the inherent dignity of the human person'. However, in reality all over the world, hundreds of thousands of people are being held in prisons that are: squalid, overcrowded, dilapidated, unsanitary, inhumane, unjust, very expensive and ineffective in tackling crime. In many countries, conditions are so bad that prisoners die from malnutrition, deseases, attacks from other prisoners or prison stuff, or suicide. Under extremely overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, deseases such as tuberculosis or dysentery spread very rapidly, and without medical treatment they may easily be fatal.

At the same time there is a small number of people who present such a danger to the community or to themselves that they need to be detained. However, for most offences, imprisonment is not an effective penalty. Many countries which may have very high prison populations have very high crime rates. This shows that prison is probably not deterring many people from crime. Whilst in prison, the attitudes of minor offenders may harden as they mix with those convicted of more serious crimes. This often leads to minor offenders committing more serious crime after they are released from prison.

Large amounts of money are spent on locking people up, even when prison stuff are poorly paid, buildings are not maintained and prisoners are treated inadequately.

In many countries prison populations have been increasing substantially over resent years. Most prisoners are young, poor, urban men. Locking up this section of the general population for substantial periods has a destabilizing effect on the whole of society in the longer term.

Answer the questions:

1. What is the main task of the most prisons?

2. In what way are the prisons separated?

3. Where are younger offenders held?

4. In what case is an offender's time in prison reduced?

5. How can you characterize prison conditions?

6. Is it reasonably to lock up young, poor, urban men? Why?

UNIT 4

KINDS OF CASES

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: criminal case, civil case, private, bring the suit, tenant, sue, injury, plaintiff, party, defendant, file a paper, complaint, dispute, counterclaim, to prove, burden of proof, preponderance of evidence, unanimous, accuse, plead guilty, innocence, trial, beyond reasonable doubt.

As a juror, you may sit on a criminal case, a civil case, or both.

Civil cases are usually disputes between or among private citizens, corporations, governments, government agencies, and other organizations. Most often, the party bringing the suit is asking for money damages for some wrong that has been done. For example, a tenant may sue a landlord for failure to fix a leaky roof, or a landlord may sue a tenant for failure to pay a rent. People who have been injured may sue a person or a company they feel is responsible for the injury.

The party bringing the suit is called the plaintiff; the party being sued is called the defendant. There may be many plaintiffs or many defendants in the same case.

The plaintiff starts the lawsuit by filing a paper called a complaint; in which the case against the defendant is stated. The next paper filed is usually the answer, in which the defendant may also feel that there has been a wrong committed by the plaintiff, in which case a counterclaim will be filed along with the answer. It is up to the plaintiff to prove the case against the defendant. In each civil case the judge tells the jury the extent to which the plaintiff must prove U the case. This is called the plaintiffs burden of proof, a burden that the plaintiff must meet in ' order to win. In most civil cases the plaintiffs burden is to prove the case by a preponderance of evidence, that is, that the plaintiffs version of what happened in the case is more probably true than not true. Jury verdicts do not need to be unanimous in civil cases. Only ten jurors need to agree upon a verdict if there are 12 jurors: 5 must agree if there are six jurors.

A criminal case is brought by the state or by a city or county against a person or persons accused of having committed a crime. The state, city or county is called the plaintiff; the accused person is called the defendant. The charge against the defendant is called an information or a complaint. The defendant has pleaded not guilty and you should presume the defendant'sf К innocence throughout the entire trial unless the plaintiff proves the defendant guilty. The plaintiffs burden of proof is greater in a criminal case than in a civil case. In each criminal case you hear the judge will tell you all the elements of the crime that the plaintiff must prove; the plaintiff must prove each of these elements beyond reasonable doubt before the defendant can be found guilty.

In criminal cases the verdict must be unanimous, that is, all jurors must agree that the defendant is guilty in order to overcome the presumption of innocence.

ANSWER THE QWESTIONS:

1. What is a civil case?

2. What is a complaint?

3. What is a counterclaim?

4. What is burden of proof?

5. What is meant by the presumption of innocence?

UNIT 5

ALTERNATIVES TO PRISON

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: custody, fine, probation, supervision, reparation, disadvantages, sentence, affluent, restitution, drawbacks, victim, violence, suspension, subject to, comply with, requirements, to impose penalty, suspended sentence, in advance, discretion, breach, community service, reasonable excuse, availability, deterrent, fraudulent, deprive of.

In most criminal justice systems the majority of the offenders are dealt with by means other than custody - by fines and other financial penalties, by probation or supervision, or by orders to make reparation in some practical form to the community.

The most common penalty, fine, avoids the disadvantages of many other forms of sentence; it is inexpensive to administer and does not normally have the side effects, such as social stigma and loss of job that may follow imprisonment. However, there are dangers that the imposition of financial penalties may result in more affluent offenders receiving penalties that they can easily discharge, while less affluent offenders are placed under burdens that they can not sustain.

Related to the fine is an order to pay restitution (in some countries termed compensation). The principle of restitution is popular in some countries as an alternative to punitive sentencing, but there are some drawbacks. One is the possibility, as in the case of the fine, that the more affluent offender may receive favorable treatment from the court because he is able to pay restitution. The second drawback is that such schemes do not help all victims of crime. Only those who are the victims of crimes for which the offender is caught and convicted and has the funds to pay restitution are likely to be recompensed. Victims of crimes of violence in some countries – such as England and Canada - are entitled to restitution from public funds, whether or not the offender is detected or has the resources necessary to compensate him.

There are many ways of dealing with offenders that do not involve the payment of money. One is probation, a system that takes many different forms in different jurisdictions. However, that essentially involves the suspension of sentence on the offender subject to the condition that he is supervised while living in the community by a probation officer and possibly agrees to comply with such other requirements as the court may think appropriate. Usually; if the offender complies with the probation order and commits no further offence while it is in force, no other penalty is imposed. If he breaks the requirement of the order or commits another offence, he can be brought back before the court and punished for the original offence as well as for the later one.

In many American states probation is combined with suspended sentence, so that the sentence the offender will have to serve if he breaks the order is fixed in advance. In England the sentence is not fixed in advance, and the court has complete discretion if there is a breach of probation terms to sentence the offender for the original crime in light of his later behavior.

The concept of reparation has gained in popularity in a number of jurisdictions. Under this method, the offender makes good the damage he has done through his crime, not by paying money but by providing services to the victim directly or indirectly through the community. In England this takes the form of the community service order, under which the court is empowered to order anyone who is convicted of an offence that could be punished with imprisonment to perform up to 240 hours of unpaid work for the community, usually over a period of not more than 12 months. The kind of work involved varies according to the aria, the time of the year, and the abilities of the offender; in some cases it may involve heavy physical labor, but in others it may require such work as the provision of help to handicapped people. If the offender completes the hours of work ordered by the court, he receives no further penalty, but if he fails to carry out the work without reasonable excuse, he can be re-sentenced for the original offence. This method is less expensive to administer than imprisonment, less damaging to the offender and his family, and more useful to the community. There are some doubts about the extent to which the availability of community service as an alternative to prison weakens the deterrent effect of on the deterrent effect of the criminal law, but there can be no doubt that community service has become an established sentencing alternative.

Other alternatives to prison are based on the idea of preventing an offender from committing further offences, without necessarily confining him or her in a prison. The most familiar power of this kind is that of disqualifying an offender from driving a motor vehicle or from holding a driver's license. Other forms of disqualification may be imposed on offenders convicted of particular types of crimes: a fraudulent company director may be disqualified from being involved in the direction of a company, a corrupt politician may be disqualified from holding public office, or a parent who sexually abuses his children may be deprived of parental authority over them.

It appears, however, that imprisonment will still remain the major instrument of punishment. In light of the difficulties surrounding its use, prison ideally should be employed as a last resort of those offenders who can not be handled in any other way.

ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages of fine as a punishment?

2. What is the difference between probation and suspended sentence?

3. In what cases should imprisonment employed for offenders?

4. What other alternatives to prison can you name?

UNIT6

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: posthumous pardon, pro-hanging lobby, reintroduce, deterrence, retribution, deserve, revenge, homicide, oppose, conscience, in favor of, convict, abolish, innocent

Capital punishment has been used throughout history, although its methods and the crimes for which it is used have changed over the centuries.

Nowadays not only are the methods different but more importantly not everyone agrees that capital punishment should be used. People are divided into two distinct groups; those for and those against. This is because this issue is black and white; there is no grey area.

In the USA, 85% of the population over the age of 21 approve of the death penalty. In many states which still have the death penalty, some use the electric chair, which can take up to 20 minutes to kill, while others use gas or lethal injections.

By contrast, in Britain, public opinion started to turn against the use of capital punishment after the Second World War. A number of well-publicized cases in the fifties, two in particular, helped to bring about the swing.

The first of these was the case of Ruth Ellis, who was hanged for shooting her lover in what was generally regarded as a crime of passion. The second was the posthumous pardon of Timothy Evans, hanged for murders which, it was later proved, had been committed by someone else.

As a consequence, juries were unwilling to convict. This brought about a gradual reduction in the use of the death penalty until finally it was decided that it should only be available for murder and serious violent crimes.

The pro-hanging lobby uses four main arguments to support its call for the reintroduction of capital punishment. First there is the deterrence theory, which argues that potential murderers would think twice before committing the act if they knew that they might die if they were caught. The armed bank robber might, likewise, go back to being unarmed.

The next argument in favor of bringing back capital punishment concerns public security. If the death penalty were reinstated, it would mean that a convicted murderer could not be set free after serving 20 years or less of a life sentence and be able to go on to murder again. Consequently, the general public would be safer.

The other two arguments are more suspect. The idea of retribution demands that criminals should get what they deserve: if a murderer intentionally sets out to commit a crime, he should accept the consequences. Retribution, which is just another word for revenge, is supported by the religious doctrine of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.

The fourth and the last main pro-hanging argument is the most cold-blooded. It is that it makes economic sense to hang convicted murderers rather than to keep them in prison wasting taxpayers' money.

The arguments against the death penalty are largely humanitarian. But there are also statistical reasons for opposing it: the deterrence figures do not add up. In Britain, 1903 was the record year for executions and yet in 1904 the number of homicides actually rose. There was a similar occurrence in 1946 and 1947. If the deterrence theory were correct, the rate should have fallen.

The second main argument against reintroducing capital punishment is that innocent people are sometimes wrongly convicted, and while people can be released from prison, they can not be brought back from the dead if they have been hanged.

The other reasons to oppose the death penalty are largely a matter of individual conscience and belief. One is that murder is murder and that the state has no more right to take a life than the individual. The other is that Christianity preaches forgiveness, not revenge. ANSWER THE QWESTIONS:

1. What is capital punishment?

2. Can you name any countries which have it?

3. What arguments can you think of for and against its use?

4. What is your personal attitude to it? Are you for or against its use?

5. Which forms of capital punishment can you name?

THE DEATH PENALTY

WCJDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: ultimate, inmate, remorse, support, execution, gag, buddy, blindfold, rape, stab, brutal, brag, sacrifice, witness, eliminate, parole, occur, estimates, accuse of, death row, persistent, apply, survey, hesitant.

Death. It is the ultimate penalty. In the last 20 years in the US, 387 people have been put to death by the government. Today 3000 inmates sit on death row awaiting a similar fate. These individuals have all been convicted of horrible crimes,- the only crime that is punishable by death is first degree murder by adult. Many of those convicted are responsible for murders and rapes, and have shown no remorse for the crimes they committed. No one disagrees that these people deserve to be punished. But should they be punished by being put to death?

Those in favor of death penalty give two major reasons in support of their view. Death is the only punishment that fits the crime. This idea goes back to ancient traditions of "an eye for an eye" - if you kill someone, then you should be killed.

Consider the case of Robert Lee Willie, the story of whose execution was made into a movie called "Dead man walking". Robert Lee and his buddy, Joe Vaccaro, kidnapped an 18-year-old girl who had just graduated from high school. They blindfolded her, gagged her, and drove her to a lonely hillside. There they repeatedly raped her and stabbed her. Robert Lee, when questioned, admitted to the brutal murder and bragged about how it made him feel a big man. Police and family members believed that this man had sacrificed his right to life by committing this horrid crime. The jury agreed. Robert Lee Willie was sentenced to death and later executed - many witnesses say that he showed no remorse to the end.

Trying to prevent more horrible crimes from taking place is the second reason given in support of the death penalty. Supporters argue that if people know that the death penalty is a possible punishment for murder, then they are less likely to commit the crime. The hope is that by executing one person, we can prevent other crimes from being committed. Certainly, by eliminating the convicted criminal, that individual will no longer be able - through the mail, the internet, escape, or parole - to hurt anyone else.

Death penalty opponents argue that the death penalty is not only a "cruel and unusual punishment" (a penalty forbidden by the US Constitution), but is also ineffective and unfair.

Since the death penalty was made legal by the Supreme Court in 1976, murder rates across the country have risen dramatically. Last year, over 20000 murders occurred in the US. The fact that murder rates have gone up, not down, say death penalty opponents, shows that capital punishment is not a deterrent and does not help prevent violent crime. Furthermore, estimates show that it is far more expensive to execute a criminal ($2000000 on average, due mostly to the cost of multiple court trials) than it is to imprison someone for life ($20000 per year).

Despite the many trials and appeals that people who are accused of a crime go through, the judges and the juries are human and can make mistakes. A perfect example of this is found in the case of Kirk Bloodsworth. In 1985 he was accused and convicted of raping and murdering a nine-year-old girl. He had had an alibi but the jury didn't believe him. Bloodsworth was ordered to die by lethal injection.

Bloodsworth's lawyer discovered an FBI report that cast doubt on his conviction. Subsequent DNA tests showed that Bloodsworth could not have been the killer. He was freed in 1993 after nine years on death row. Had his lawyer not been so persistent, or had the date of his execution been earlier, he would have been put to death as an innocent man.

A study by the Stanford Law Review documents 350 cases in the US since 1900 where people have been wrongly convicted of capital crimes. Of these innocent people, 139 were sentenced to death and 23 were executed. Further, the death penalty, as it is applied now, is fairly random and seems to be applied more to Blacks than to Whites. This racial discrimination had led the American Bar Association (the ABA) to demand a temporary end of capital punishment. All attorneys the US belong to the ABA.

Death penalty opponents argue that a killing is a killing, no matter how cleanly it is done, and capital punishment is simply state-sanctioned murder. By approving of the death penalty all of us - not just the judge and the executioner, but all of us - are to the same level as the murderer and becoming murderers ourselves.

Resent surveys of the American public have shown that there is widespread support for the death penalty. Over 70% of people believe that it is a just punishment for capital crimes committed by adults. Politicians have been working to increase the number of death row prisoners who are executed, and to shorten the appeal process to a maximum of two years.

However, despite general support, when it comes to looking into the face of an individual and saying that they deserve to die, many people are hesitant. Juries have difficulty sentencing convicted murderer to death. Perhaps this is why only 300 out of 15000 convicted murderers end up on death row each year. Believing it an abstract idea is one thing, using it to kill the man in front of you is another.

ANSWER THE QWESTIONS:

1 What does statistics say about murder rates?

2 Do you think victims of violence provoke attackers by their behavior?

3 Can society correct criminals?

4 Why do ordinary people support death penalty?

UNIT 7

BRITISH POLICE

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: keep law and order, distinctive, government, separate, authority, area, divide, carry guns, guard, circumstances, permission, undergo training, traffic wardens, make sure, power, property, apprehend.

The British police officer - sometimes called the 'bobby' after Sir Robert Peel, the founder of the police force,- is a well-known figure to anyone who has visited Britain or who has seen British films. Policemen are to be seen in towns and cities keeping law and order, either walking in the streets ('pounding the beat') or driving in cars (known as 'panda cars' because of their distinctive markings). Few people realize, however, that the police in Britain are organized differently from many other countries.

Most countries, for example, have a national police force which is controlled by central Government. Britain has no national police force, although police policy is governed by the central Government's Home Office. Instead, there is a separate police force for each of 52 areas into which the country is divided. Each has a police authority - a community of local county councilors and magistrates.

The forces co-operate with each other, but it is unusual for members of one force to operate in another's area unless they are asked to give assistance. This sometimes happens when there has been a very serious crime. A Chief Constable (the most senior police officer of a force) may sometimes ask for the assistance of London's police force, based at New Scotland Yard - known simply as 'the Yard'.

In most countries the police carry guns. The British police generally do not carry firearms, except in Northern Ireland. Only a few police are regularly armed - for instance, those who guard politicians and diplomats or who patrol airports. In certain circumstances specially trained police officers can be armed, but only with the signed permission of a magistrate.

All members of the police must have gained a certain level of academic qualifications at school and undergone a period of intensive training. Like the army, there are a number of ranks: after the Chief Constable comes the Assistant Chief Constable, Chief Superintendent, Chief Inspector, Inspector, Sergeant and Constable. Women make up about 10 per cent of the police force. The police are helped by a number of Special Constables - members of the public who work for the police voluntarily for a few hours a week.

Each police force has its own Criminal Investigation Department (CID). Members of CIDs are detectives, and they do not wear uniforms. (The other uniformed people you see in British towns are traffic wardens. Their job is to make sure that drivers obey the parking regulations. They have no other powers - it is the police who are responsible for controlling offences like speeding, careless driving and drunken driving.)

The duties of the police are varied, ranging from assisting at accidents to safeguarding public order and dealing with lost property. One of their main functions is, of course, apprehending criminals and would-be criminals.

ANSWER THE QWESTIONS:

1. Who was the founder of the British police force?

2. Is there one police force, organized by central Government?

3. In what situations can the policemen carry guns?

4. What are the ranks of the policemen?

5. What are the duties of traffic wardens?

6. What is Scotland Yard and what does it do?

UNIT 8

HOME AND CAR SECURITY

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS: protect, precautions, obvious, target, opportunity, burglar, signs, note, claim, lock, advantage, device, safety chain, allow, burglar alarm, tip, valuable, track, release, stationary, snatch, carjacking.

Juvenile delinquency

Crime rate among teenagers is very high. People all over the world are concerned about this problem. Minors who commit crimes present comparatively large group of the young people. The most common crimes minors commit are thefts, shoplifting, pickpocketing, burglaries and mugging. According to the latest statistical data the most common crime is theft of mobiles. 50% of all street crime involved the theft of a mobile phone. In Britain, for example, over 73000 mobile phones were stolen last year - that's 200 a day.

Many sociologists claim, that teenage violence is due to bad home backgrounds, bad housing areas, unfavourable families, one-parent families.

Economic situation in the country influences on the behaviour of young people. Their parents become unemployed, can't find any job for providing their families. Children feel lack of parents attention, stay at home on their own and sometimes mix with unfavorable people in the street. Many adolescents start to abuse alcohol, try drugs very early and then, as a rule, turn to criminal activity.

Young people should have many interesting pastimes and forms of entertainment. Families, schools and local authorities must provide them with sports facilities, entertainment and educational centres.

But not only poor unhappy children commit crimes. Young people from quite favourable families also can become criminals. It depends on their upbringing and background, but sometimes these people are beating boredom. They have nothing to do, nowhere to go, so they wander about the streets together in groups, committing petty crimes.

Experts say that the juvenile problem is the result of the policy of silence, which disguised many of our problems.