Cognitive movement in psychological thought of the 20th century

PSYCHOANALYSIS AS A THEORY AND A THERAPY

Sigmund Freud was a pioneer in the study of unconscious mental activity. His theories on the inner workings of the human mind are now accepted by most schools of psychological thought. In 1896, Freud created the term "psychoanalysis," and later he developed its main principles, objectives, techniques, and methodology of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis focuses on the unconscious aspects of personality. According to Freud the human mind is like an iceberg. He believed that the conscious level of the mind was similar to the top of the iceberg which could be seen, but the unconscious was mysterious and was hidden.

In An Outline of Psychoanalysis Freud explains the principles of the psychoanalytic theory. He begins with an explanation of the three parts of the psychic apparatus - the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the unconscious part that contains the instincts. The ego has the quality of being conscious and is responsible for controlling the demands of the id. It serves as a link between the id and the external world. Finally, the superego, whose demands are managed by the id, is responsible for the limitation of satisfactions and represents the influence of others, such as parents, teachers, and role models, as well as the impact of racial, societal, and cultural traditions.

As a therapy, psychoanalysis is based on the concept that individuals are unaware of the many factors that cause their behavior and emotions. These unconscious factors have the potential to produce unhappiness, which is expressed through a number of symptoms such as difficulty in relating to others, or problems with self-esteem. The basic objective of psychoanalysis is to remove neuroses and thereby cure patients by returning the damaged ego to its normal state.

The method of psychoanalysis has several steps. First, analysts gather material from patient's free associations, dreams and slips of the tongue. Second, analysts begin to form hypotheses about what happened to the patients in the past and what is happening to them in their daily life. If analysts reveal their conclusions to patients too soon, resistance due to repression will occur. Overcoming this resistance requires additional time and effort by both the analysts and the patients. Once patients accept the conclusions, they are cured.

The value of psychoanalysis as a theory and as a therapy has been questioned since the early 1900s. Critics dispute the value of the data upon which Freud based his theories; and the method and effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment. However, we should not forget the revolutionary introduction of the unconscious aspects of personality in the discipline of psychology.

HISTORY OF BEHAVIOURISM

Behaviourism is the teaching that says that psychology must focus its attention on what is observable. Perceptions, thoughts, images, feelings are subjective and can never lead to an objective science. Behaviourists argue that the majority of behavior is learned from the environment after birth, and psychology should investigate the laws and products of learning.

Behaviourism is primarily associated with Pavlov in Russia and with Thorndike, Watson and particularly Skinner in the United States.

The first behaviourists were Russians. The very first was Ivan Setchenov who thought that all behavior is caused by stimulation. Vladimir Bekhterev is another early Russian behaviourist. He established the first psychology lab in Russia at the University of Kazan in 1885, and he discovered what he called the association reflex - what Pavlov would call the conditioned reflex.

The Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1848-1936) trained dogs to respond in a certain manner, for example, by first ringing a bell before feeding them and then simply ringing the bell upon which stimulus they would begin to salivate as if they were about to eat.

Watson, Thorndike and Skinner used Pavlov's work and developed theories of learning that they attempted to use to explain all human behaviour.

Edward Lee Thorndike developed American version of Russian behaviourism. He will always be remembered for his cats and his "puzzle boxes." These boxes had escape mechanisms of various complexities that required that the cats do several behaviors in sequence. From this research, he concluded that there were two laws of learning: The law of exercise (the more often it is used, the stronger the connection) and the law of effect (when an association is followed by a "satisfying state of affairs," the connection is strengthened).

John Watson wrote about the principles of behaviourism in the article called "Psychology as a Behaviourist Views It". He denied the existence of any human instincts, inherited capacities or talents, and temperaments. This radical environmentalism is reflected in his best known quote: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and regardless of his talents, ... tendencies, abilities, ... and race of his ancestors."

COGNITIVE MOVEMENT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT OF THE 20TH CENTURY

In the second half of the twentieth century, the invention of the computer and the way of thinking associated with it led to a new approach or orientation to psychology called the cognitive movement. The roots of the cognitive movement are extremely varied: they include behaviorism, humanism, etc. They include thinkers from linguistics, neuroscience, philosophy, and engineering; and it especially involves specialists in computer technology and the field of artificial intelligence.

Cognition means «knowing» and cognitive processes refer to the ways in which knowledge is gained, used and retained. Cognitivists believe that the study of internal processes is important in understanding behaviour because humans do not passively respond to the environment. Cognitive processes actively organize and manipulate the information we receive. Therefore, cognitive psychologists study perception, attention, memory, thinking, language and problem solving. They also attempted to explain artificial intelligence and abnormality.

Cognitive psychology developed as a separate area within the discipline since the late 1950s and early 1960s (though there are examples of cognitive thinking from earlier researchers). The term came into use with the publication of the book "Cognitive psychology" by Ulrich Neisser in 1967. However, the cognitive approach was brought to prominence by Donald Broadbent's book "Perception and Communication" in 1958. Since that time, the dominant paradigm in the area has been the information processing model of cognition that Broadbent put forward. This is a way of thinking and reasoning about mental processes, imagining them like software running on the computer that is the brain. Theories commonly refer to forms of input, representation, computation or processing, and outputs. Interest in mental processes appeared in the works of Tolman and Piaget, but it was the computer that introduced the terminology and metaphor necessary to investigate the human mind. Cognitive psychology compares the human mind to a computer and suggests that we are information processors. From the perspective of the cognitive psychology it is possible to study the internal mental processes that lie between the stimuli we receive and the responses we make.

Cognitive psychologists use a number of experimental techniques including laboratory-based research with normal and brain-damaged subjects, as well as computer and mathematical models to test and validate theories.

This way of conceiving mental processes has pervaded psychology more generally over the past few decades, and it is not uncommon to find cognitive theories within social psychology, personality, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology. The application of cognitive theories in comparative psychology has led to many recent studies in animal cognition.

The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches in psychology.

Many are hoping that cognitive psychology will prove to be the paradigm we have been waiting for. It is still early to tell, but the significance of cognitive psychology is impossible to deny.

Art therapy

Art therapy is based on the belief that the creative process involved in the making of art is healing and life-enhancing. Through creating art and talking about art and the process of art making with an art therapist, one can cope with symptoms, stress, and traumatic experiences, enhance cognitive abilities, and enjoy the life-affirming pleasures of artistic creativity. The term art therapy applies to visual arts therapy, dance therapy, drama therapy, music therapy, poetry therapy and psychodrama.

How did art therapy begin? Art therapy did not emerge as a distinct profession until the 1930's. At the beginning of the 20th century, psychiatrists became interested in the art work done by patients, and studied it to see if there was a link between the art and the illness of their patients. At this same time, art educators were discovering that the free and spontaneous art expression of children represented both emotional and symbolic communications. Since then, the profession of art therapy has grown into an effective and important method of communication, assessment, and treatment with many populations.

Art therapists work with children, adolescents, and adults and provide services to individuals, couples, families, groups, and communities. They often work as part of clinical teams, in settings that include mental health, rehabilitation, medical and forensic institutions, wellness centers, schools, nursing homes, corporate structures, art studios, and independent practices. Art therapists are skilled in the application of drawing, painting, clay, and other mediums for treatment and assessment.

Art therapy is a human service profession which utilizes creative art process and responses to the created art productions as reflections of an individual's development, abilities, personality, interests, concerns, and conflicts.

Art therapy is an effective treatment for the patients with developmental, medical, educational, social or psychological problems. It is practiced in mental health, rehabilitation, medical, educational, and forensic institutions. Population of all ages, races and ethnic backgrounds are served by art therapists in individual, couples, family, and group therapy formats.

Dance therapy

Dance therapy (also called movement therapy) is the use of choreographed or improvised movement as a way of treating social, emotional, cognitive and physical problems. Throughout the ages, people of many cultures have used dance to express powerful emotions, tell stories, treat illness, celebrate important events, and maintain communal bonds. Dance therapy employs this power of movement for therapy and uses it for health, and well-being.

Dance as therapy came into existence as a combination of modern dance and psychiatry. It was pioneered by Marian Chase (1896-1970), who studied dance in New York City before establishing her own studio in Washington, DC, in the 1930s. Because Chase's dance classes provided unique opportunities for self-expression, communication, and group interaction, psychiatrists in Washington began sending patients to her.

By the mid-1940s Chase was giving lectures and demonstrations, and other professional dancers soon followed her lead, using dance to help people with emotional, mental, and physical problems. It was not until 1966, that dance therapy gained professional recognition, when the American Dance Therapy Association (ADT A) was founded. Today the ADT A has nearly 1,200 members in 46 states and 20 countries around the world.

Dance therapists believe that mental and emotional problems are often held in the body in the form of muscle tension. Conversely, they believe that the state of the body can affect attitude and feelings, both positively and negatively.

Dance movements help healing in several ways. Moving as a group brings people out of isolation, creates powerful social and emotional bonds, and generates the good feelings that come from being with others. Moving rhythmically eases muscular rigidity, diminishes anxiety, and increases energy. Moving spontaneously helps people learn to recognize and trust their impulses. Moving creatively helps self-expression and opens up new ways of thinking and doing.

On a physical level, dance therapy provides the benefits of exercise: improved health, coordination, and muscle tone. On an emotional level, it helps people feel more joyful and confident, and allows them to explore such issues as anger, frustration, and loss that may be too difficult to explore verbally. On a mental level, dance therapy seeks to enhance cognitive skills, motivation, and memory.

Your dance therapy experience will depend on your ailment, whether you work with a dance therapist in private practice or in the context of a treatment team, and whether you are the only patient or part of a group. Different dance therapists have different styles. You need absolutely no previous dance training to benefit from dance therapy.

For the first consultation you will meet with the dance therapist in a dance studio. You should wear comfortable clothing for this and all other sessions. First, the therapist will talk with you about your needs and your reasons for wanting treatment. Next, the therapist may ask you to walk around the studio in order to analyze your body shape, posture, and movements: Is your body erect or caved in? Finally, the dance therapist will discuss your treatment goals with you, and the two of you might arrive at an agreement regarding the duration and nature of the therapy. You should review your goals with the therapist periodically to see if you are meeting them.

BIPOLAR DISORDER

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in a person's mood, energy, and ability to function. The symptoms of bipolar disorder are severe; they can result in damaged relationships, poor job or school performance, and even suicide. Bipolar disorder can be treated, and people with this illness can lead full and productive lives.

More than two million American adults, or about 1 percent of the population age 18 and older, have bipolar disorder. Symptom of bipolar disorder include cycling mood changes that include extreme highs (mania), extreme lows (depression), and periods of normal functioning (wellness). The periods of highs and lows are called episodes of mania and depression.

Signs and symptoms of mania (or a manic episode) include: increased energy, activity, and restlessness; excessively "high," overly good, euphoric mood; extreme irritability; racing thoughts and talking very fast, jumping from one idea to another; distractibility, can't concentrate well; little sleep needed; unrealistic beliefs in one's abilities and powers; poor judgment; aggressive behaviour; denial that anything is wrong.

A manic episode is diagnosed if elevated mood occurs with three or more of the other symptoms most of the day, nearly every day, for one week or longer. Signs and symptoms of depression (or a depressive episode) include: lasting sad, anxious, or empty mood; feelings of hopelessness or pessimism; feelings of guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness; decreased energy, a feeling of fatigue; difficulty concentrating, remembering, making decisions; restlessness or irritability; sleeping too much, or can't sleep; chronic pain or other bodily symptoms that are not caused by physical illness or injury; thoughts of death or suicide.

A depressive episode is diagnosed if five or more of these symptoms last most of the day, nearly every day, for a period of two weeks or longer.

Bipolar disorder is a chronic disorder. After an initial episode, people with bipolar disorder usually experience alternating periods of mania, depression and wellness for the rest of their lives. There is currently no cure for bipolar disorder. However, it is important to understand that recognizing bipolar disorder and treatment, even during wellness, can help keep the condition under control and reduce the chance that the episodes will worsen over time. Medications known as "mood stabilizers" usually are prescribed to help control bipolar disorder.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

It has been found that most illnesses are related to unrelieved stress. If you are experiencing stress symptoms, you have gone beyond your optimal stress level; you need to reduce the stress in your life and/or improve your ability to manage it. Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on our lives is not sufficient for reducing its harmful effects. Just as there are many sources of stress, there are many possibilities for its management. However, all required work toward change: changing the source of stress and/or changing your reaction to it. How do you proceed?

1. Become aware of your stressors and your emotional and physical reactions. - Notice your distress. Determine what events distress you. What are you telling yourself about meaning of these events? Determine how your body responds to the stress. Do you become nervous or physically upset? If so, in what specific ways?

2. Recognize what you can change. - Can you change your stressors by avoiding or eliminating them completely? Can you reduce their intensity (manage them over a period of time instead of on a daily or weekly basis)? Can you shorten your exposure to stress (take a break, leave the premises)? Can you devote the time and energy necessary to making a change (goal setting, time management techniques, and delayed gratification strategies may be helpful here)?

3. Reduce the intensity of your emotional reactions to stress. - The stress reaction is triggered by your perception of physical or emotional danger. Do not view your stressors in exaggerated terms and taking a difficult situation and making it a disaster. Do not expect to please everyone. Work at adopting more moderate views; try to see the stress as something you can cope with rather than something that overpowers you. Try to temper your excess emotions. Put the situation in perspective. Do not think about the negative aspects and the "what if's."

4. Learn to moderate your physical reactions to stress. - Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart rate and respiration back to normal. Relaxation techniques can reduce muscle tension. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain voluntary control over such things as blood pressure. Medications, when prescribed by a physician, can help in the short term in moderating your physical reactions.

5. Build your physical reserves. - Exercise for cardiovascular fitness three to four times a week (moderate, prolonged rhythmic exercise is best, such as walking, swimming, cycling, or jogging). Eat well-balanced, nutritious meals. Maintain your ideal weight. Avoid nicotine, excessive caffeine, and other stimulants. Mix leisure with work. Take breaks and get away when you can. Get enough sleep. Be as consistent with your sleep schedule as possible.

6. Maintain your emotional reserves. - Develop some mutually supportive friendships/relationships. Pursue realistic goals which are meaningful to you, rather than goals others have for you that you don’t share. Expect some frustrations, failures and

Always be kind and gentle with yourself – be a friend to yourself.