Reference section

APPENDIX 1: PHONETIC TERMINOLOGY

AFFRICATE / ˈæfrɪkɪt / – a sound formed during the separation of the articulating organs/ ʧ, ʤ /

ALLOPHONE / 'æləfəʊn / – an actual sound (sounds) which represents the phoneme in speech.

ALVEOLAR / æl 'vi׃ələ /– a consonant articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, e.g. / t,d,s,z,l,n /.

ARTICULATION / ɑ׃ ˌtɪkju׃ˈleɪʃ^ən / – joint coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of pronunciation.

ASPIRATION /ˌæ spɪ ˈreɪʃ^ən/– a slight puff of breath that is heard after the explosion of / p,t,k / before the beginning of the vowel immediately following.

ASSIMILATION / əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃ^ən / – a phonetic phenomenon of changing of a speech sound because of the influence of another speech sound next to it.

BACK VOWEL / ˌbæk 'vaʊəl / – a vowel formed with the bulk in the back part of the mouth cavity.

BACK-ADVANCED VOWEL / 'bæk əd 'vɑ׃nst 'vaʊəl / – a vowel formed with the back-advanced position of the bulk of the tongue.

BILABIAL CONSONANT / baɪ'leɪbɪəl 'kɒnsənənt / – a consonant articulated by the two lips.

BOUNDARY / 'baʊndəri / – a dividing line between sounds, syllables, intonation groups, phonoparagraphs marked by means of one or two vertical bars.

COMMUNICATIVE CENTRE / kəˈmju׃nɪkətɪv 'sentə / – a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sense-group or utterance.

COMMUNICATIVE TYPES / kəˈmju׃nɪkətɪv 'taɪps / – the types of utterances differentiated according to the type of intonation.

CONSONANT / 'kɒnsənənt / – a speech sound pronounced with an obstruction to the air stream.

CONSTRICTIVE-FRICATIVE CONSONANT / kən'strɪktɪv 'frɪkətɪv 'kɒnsənənt / – a consonant articulated against the upper teeth either with the tip or the blade of the tongue.

DENTAL / 'dent^əl / – a consonant articulated against the upper teeth either with the tip or the blade of the tongue.

DESCENDING SCALE / dɪ'sendɪŋ 'skeɪl /– gradual lowering of the voice pitch.

DEVOICE/₍ˌ₎di׃ 'vɔɪs / – to pronounce with the vocal cords switched out.

DIPHTHONG / 'dɪfθɒŋ / – a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements (a nucleus and a glide) pronounced so as to form a single syllable.

DIPHTHONGOID / 'dɪfθɒŋ 'gɔɪd / – a vowel in the articulation of which the organs of speech change their position but very slightly.

DISYLLABIC / 'dɪsɪˈlæbɪk / – consisting of two syllables.

FALL / fɔ׃l / – lowering of the voice pitch within a vowel of a nuclear syllable.

FORELINGUAL / 'fɔ׃lɪŋgwəl / – a consonant articulated by the blade of the tongue, the blade with the tip or by the tip against the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

FRICATIVE / 'frɪkətɪv / – a consonant in the production of which the bulk of the tongue moves forward and occupies the highest position towards the hard palate.

FRONT / ˈfrʌnt / – a vowel in the production of which the bulk of the tongue moves forward and occupies the highest position towards the hard palate.

FRONT-RETRACTED / ˈfrʌnt rɪ'træktɪd /– a vowel produced with the front, but a bit retracted position of the bulk of the tongue.

GLIDE / glaɪd / – the element of a diphthong the full articulation of which is not accomplished.

INTERDENTAL / ₍ˌ₎ɪntə 'dent^əl /– a phoneme articulation of which is characterized by the interdental position of the tip of the tongue.

INTONATION /₍ˌ₎ɪntəʊ'neɪʃ^ən / – a complex unity of speech melody, sentence (utterance) stress, tempo with pausation, rhythm and tember.

INTONATION GROUP /₍ˌ₎ɪntəʊ'neɪʃ^ən 'gru׃p / – an actualized sense-group.

JUNCTURE / 'ʤʌnkʧə / – the place where two sounds or words are joined together.

KINETIK / kaɪˈnetɪk / – a tone in which the pitch of the voice varies during the whole duration of the tone.

LABIALIZATION /₍ˌ₎leɪbɪəlaɪ 'zeɪʃ^ən / – the lip rounding.

LABIALIZED /₍ˌ₎leɪbɪəlaɪ'zd / – (of a sound) produced with a more or less lip rounding.

LATERAL – (of a sound) produced by the tongue pressed against the alveolar ridge or the teeth, and the sides of the tongue are lowered, leaving the air passage open along them.

MONOSYLLABIC / ˌmɒnəsɪ'læbɪk/ – (of a sound) having one syllable.

NASAL / 'neɪz^əl / – (of a sound) produced with the soft palate lowered while the airpassage through the mouth cavity is blocked and it passes through the nasal cavity.

NOISE CONSONANT / 'nɔɪz 'kɒnsənənt / – consonant in the production of which noise prevails over musical tone.

NUCLEAR TONE / 'nju׃klɪə 'təʊn / – a marked change of pitch which occurs on the final stressed syllable.

NUCLEUS / 'nju׃klɪəs / – the last stressed syllable of an intonation group.

OBSTRUCTION / əb'strʌkʃ^ən /– either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete closure of speech organs (complete obstruction).

PHONEME / ˈfəʊni׃m / – the smallest linguistic unit capable of differentiating the meaning and the grammar forms of words.

PHONETIC / fəʊˈnetɪk / – of or concerning the sounds of human speech.

PITCH / pɪʧ / – the degree of highness or lowness of a musical note or speaking voice.

PITCH LEVEL / ˌpɪʧ 'lev^əl /– the pitch of the first stressed syllable or an intonation-group.

PLOSION / 'pləʊʒ^ən /– an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.

PLOSIVE / 'pləʊsɪv/– a consonant sound made by stopping the air completely and then letting it quickly out of the mouth.

POLYSYLLABIC /₍ˌ₎ pɒlɪsɪ'læbɪk / – (of a word) that must be pronounced in more than three syllables.

POST ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS / ' pəʊst æl'vi׃ələ 'kɒnsənənts / – articulated with the tongue tip raised towards the back part of the alveolar ridge.

PREHEAD / 'pri׃hed / – any unstressed or partially stressed syllables preceding the first full stress of a tune.

PROGRESSIVE / prəʊ'gresɪv / – (of assimilation) when some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceeding sound.

RECIPROCAL / rɪ'sɪ prək^əl/ – assimilation which means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.

REDUCTION / rɪ' dʌkʃ^ən / – is the weakening of a sound due to a decrease in the tenseness of the speech organs resulting in the loss of some essential characteristics of the sound.

REGRESSIVE / rɪ'gresɪv / – (of assimilation) when some articulatory features of the preceding sound are changed under the influence of the following one.

RHYTHM / 'rɪðm / – regularity or periodicity in the occurence of a particular phenomenon in an utterance.

RHYTHMIC GROUP / 'rɪðmɪk 'gru׃p / – a stressed syllable with adjoining unstressed syllables which may follow or preceed the stressed one.

SCALE / skeɪl / – a series of stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable.

SLIDING SCALE / 'slaɪdɪŋ ˌskeɪl / – a descending series of stressed syllables pronounced with downward slides, so that each slide begins a little higher than the end of the preceding one.

SONORANT / 'sɒnərənt / – a speech sound intermediate between noise consonants and vowels as they have articulatory features in common with both.

STANDARD PRONUNCIATION / 'stændəd prəˌnʌnsɪeɪʃn / – the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood in England and in English speaking countries and traditionally taught to foreigners.

STEPPING SCALE / 'stepɪŋ ˌskeɪl / – a series of stressed and unstressed syllables in which pitch descends in "steps"; i.e. pitch movement within each stressed syllable is level, and the following stressed syllable is pitched a little lower while the unstressed syllables are pronounced on the same pitch as the preceding stressed syllables.

SYLLABLE / 'sɪləbl /– one or more speech sounds forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a whole word or a commonly recognized and separable subdivision of a word or a word form.

TAIL / teɪl /– the unstressed or half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus.

TEETH-RIDGE / 'ti׃θ ˌrɪʤ / – a part of the hard palate immediately behind the upper front teeth.

TEMPO / 'tempəʊ / – the rate at which utterances and their smaller units are pronounced.

TERMINAL TONE / 'tɜ׃mɪnəl 'təʊn / – a change of pitch at the junction of two intonation groups.

TONE / 'təʊn / – a stress considered from the point of view of the pitch or pitch-change associated with it.

TUNE / tju׃n/ – an intonation group containing one or more kinetic tones.

UTTERANCE STRESS / 'ʌtərəns ˌstres / – the special prominence given to one or more words in an utterance.

VOCAL CORDS / 'vəʊk^əl ˌkɔ׃dz / – two elastic folds which may be kept apart or

brought together.

VOICED / ˈvɔɪst / – sounds in the production of which the vocal cords vibrate.

VOICELESS / 'vɔɪslɪs / – sounds in the production of which the vocal cords do not vibrate.

WORD STRESS / 'wɜ׃d ˌstres / – the special prominence given to one or more syllables in a word.

APPENDIX 2: THE REFERENCE TABLE OF PHONETIC SYMBOLS

Single vowels

/ i׃/	as in	green beans	/ gri׃n bi׃nz /
/ i /	as in	city, silly	/sɪti, sɪli/
/ ɪ /	as in	big fish	/ bɪg fɪʃ/
/e/	as in	ten eggs	/ ten egz /
/æ/	as in	fat cat	/ fæt kæt/
/ɑ׃ /	as in	calm start	/ kɑ׃m stɑ׃t/
/ʌ/	as in	must come	/ mʌst kʌm/
/ɔ׃/	as in	small talk	/ smɔ׃l tɔ׃k /
/ɒ/	as in	hot spot	/ hɒt spɒt/
/u׃/	as in	blue moon	/ blu׃ mu׃n /
/ʊ/	as in	should look	/ ʃʊd lʊk /

Diphthongs

/ ɪə/	as in	ear	/ ɪə /
/ eɪ /	as in	face	/ feɪs/
/ ʊə/	as in	sure	/ ʃʊə/
/ ɔɪ/	as in	boy	/ bɔɪ /
/ əʊ/	as in	nose	/ nəʊz/
/ eə/	as in	hair	/ heə/
/ aɪ/	as in	eye	/ aɪ/
/ aʊ/	as in	mouth	/ maʊθ/

Consonants

/ p /	as in	pen	/ pen/
/ b /	as in	bad	/ bæd/
/ t /	as in	tea	/ t i׃ /
/ d/	as in	dog	/ dɒg /
/ ʧ /	as in	church	/ ʧɜ׃ʧ/
/ ʤ /	as in	jazz	/ ʤæz/
/ k /	as in	cost	/ kɒ׃st/
/ g /	as in	girl	/ gɜ׃l/
/ f /	as in	far	/ fɑ׃ /
/ v /	as in	voice	/ vɔɪs/
/ θ /	as in	thin	/ θɪn/
/ ð /	as in	then	/ ðen/
/ s /	as in	snake	/ sneɪk/
/ z /	as in	noise	/ nəʊz/
/ ʃ /	as in	shop	/ ʃɒp/
/ ʒ /	as in	measure	/ meʒə/
/ m /	as in	make	/ meɪk/
/ n /	as in	nine	/ naɪn/
/ ŋ /	as in	sing	/ sɪŋ /
/ h /	as in	house	/ haʊs/
/ l /	as in	leg	/ leg/
/ r /	as in	red	/ red/
/ w /	as in	wet	/ wet /
/ j /	as in	yes	/ jes/

Stress-tone marks

ֻ Low Fall	,ֻ,Rise -Fall- Rise	↑ Special /Accidental Rise
,Low Rise	‘^ëHigh Narrow Fall	↓ A Drop
‘High Fall	ˌLow Level	↷ A Slide
’High Rise	→Mid Level	ξ A Short Pause
,Fall - Rise	ˈHigh Level	∣ A Longer Pause
,ֻ Rise - Fall	¯High Pre-Head	‖ A Long Pause