Compound Nominal Predicate
The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative (nominal part). The link verb is the structural element of the predicate, as it joins the subject and the predicative. It expresses the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect and mood.
Among the class of link verbs we may distinguish those which have lost their original lexical meaning(to be, to get), those which have only partly lost their lexical meaning (to remain, to become, to grow, to turn, to look, to seem), those which have fully preserved their lexical meaning but still serve as link verbs followed by a predicative (to elect, to call, to leave, to keep, to make).
According to their semantic characteristics link verbs fall into three groups (Fig. 126).
Fig. 126
The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate. It characterizes the person or non-person expressed by the subject. The characterization may concern the properties of the person or non-person (the state or quality or quantity of it), the identity of the person or non-person, that is, what class of persons or things they belong to.
The predicative can be expressed in different ways (Fig. 127).
Fig. 127
There exist three most typical semantic characteristics of a predicative (Fig. 128).
Fig. 128
An identifying predicative expresses equality between the notion expressed by the predicative and by the subject, or means that they are of the same rank or value. In this case the predicative and the subject are positionally interchangeable. Such predicatives are expressed by a noun with the definite article. A classifying predicative names a class of persons or non-persons to which that denoted by the subject belongs. The predicative in this case is expressed by a noun with the indefinite article. A characterizing predicative denotes a state or quality of a person or non-person and is expressed by an adjective or a stative. Compound predicates can combine elements of different types (Fig. 129).
Fig. 129
SECONDARY SENTENCE PARTS
OBJECT
The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or, very seldom, an adverb completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning.
The object can be expressed in different ways (Fig. 130).
From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities, four types of objects can be distinguished in English (Fig. 131).
The direct object is a non-prepositional one that follows transitive verbs, adjectives, or statives and completes their meaning. Semantically it is usually a non-person which is affected by the action of the verb, though it may also be a person or a situation. The situation is expressed by a verbal, a verbal phrase, a complex, or by a clause.
The indirect object also follows verbs, adjectives and statives. Unlike the direct object, however, it may be attached to intransitive verbs as well as to transitive ones. Besides, it may also be attached to adverbs, although this is very rare.
From the point of view of their semantics and certain grammatical characteristics indirect objects fall into two types: the indirect recipient object and the indirect non-recipient object.
The indirect recipient object is attached only to ditransitive verbs. It is expressed by a noun or pronoun which as a rule denotes a person who is the addressee or recipient of the action of the verb. It is joined to the headword either without a preposition or by the preposition to (occasionally for), thus it can be non-prepositional and prepositional. The indirect recipient object is generally used with transitive verbs.
The indirect non-recipient object is attached to verbs, adjectives, statives and sometimes adverbs. It is usually a noun denoting an inanimate object, although it may be a gerund, a gerundial phrase or complex, an infinitive complex or a clause. Its semantics varies, but it never denotes the addressee (recipient) of the action of the governing verb. The indirect non-recipient object can only be joined to its headword by means of a preposition.
The cognate object is a non-prepositional object which is attached to otherwise intransitive verbs and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the governing verb.
The term “the retained object” is to be applied in case an active construction is transformed into a passive one and the indirect object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. The second object, the direct one, may be retained in the transformation, though the action of the predicate-verb is no more directed upon it. Therefore it is called a retained object.
Fig. 130
Fig. 131
ATTRIBUTE
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person expressed by the headword either qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the point of view of situation. An attribute forms a nominal phrase with its headword.
An attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech (Fig. 132).
From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones (Fig. 133).
Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their headword and are not separated from it by commas. They generally adjoin the headword, either premodifying, postmodifying, or embedding it, and are connected with other parts of the sentence only through the headword.
A detached attribute is only loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the point of view of structure, although very important semantically. It forms a separate sense group in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A detached attribute may be placed in preposition, post-position, or often at some distance from the headword.
APPOSITION
An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause.
The apposition may give another designation to, or description of, the person or non-person, or else put it in a certain class of persons or non-persons. In the latter case it is similar to an attribute, as it characterizes the person or non-person denoted by the headword.
Like the attribute, the apposition may be in preposition or postposition. However, unlike the attribute, which is always subordinated to its headword and is usually connected with other parts in the sentence only through it, words in apposition are, at least syntactically, coordinated parts, that is, both the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level in the sentence.
From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones (Fig. 134).
Non-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks, professions, kinship terms, geographical denotations, etc., used as apposition.
Detached or loose appositions form separate sense groups and are wider in their meaning than close appositions: they may give identification, explanation, etc., especially when referring to pronouns. They may follow the headword immediately or be separated from it.
Fig. 132
Fig. 133
Fig. 134
ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an adverb.
In case it modifies a verb the adverbial characterizes the action or process expressed by the verb and denotes its quality, quantity, or the whole situation. Adverbials modifying adjectives, statives and adverbs usually denote degree or quantity. Adverbials are structurally more independent of the verb than objects. Their use is often optional. Adverbials are obligatory when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb.
Non-obligatory adverbials are those which are not necessary for the structure of the sentence. They neither influence the meaning of the verb form, nor change the structure or the meaning of the rest of the sentence, no matter how important they are from the communicative viewpoint.
Fig. 135
Non-obligatory adverbials are those which are not necessary for the structure of the sentence. They neither influence the meaning of the verb form, nor change the structure or the meaning of the rest of the sentence, no matter how important they are from the communicative viewpoint.
Detached adverbials being more loosely related to the modified parts of the sentence than non-detached adverbials are never obligatory. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by intonation in speaking and by commas in writing.