Table 2 Classification of English Noise Consonants According to the Degree of Noise

Weak noise consonants are: the English [b, d, g, v, a, z, 3, cfe]. English phoneticians call the weak consonants lenis and the strong noise consonants fortis.

B. Sonorants (or sonorous consonants) are made with tone prevailing over noise because of a rather wide air passage. They are: the English [m, n, n, w, 1, r, j]; the Russian [m, m', h, h', a, a',

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The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete, in­complete and momentary. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a clo­sure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of the English [p, b, t, d, k, g, tf, d3, m , n, rj] and the Russian [n, n', 6, 6",

k, k', r, r', h', u,, m, m', h, h'].

In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of. speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the pro­duction of the English |f, v, s, z, 9, d, J", 3, h, w, 1, r, j] and the Rus­sian (cp, dp', b, b', c, c', 3, 3', m, iii', x, x', a, a', j]. Momentary obstructions are formed in the production of the Russian sono-rants [p, p'] when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge. , According to the manner of articulation consonants may be

of four groups:

1. Occlusive.

2. Constrictive.

3. Occlusive-constrictive (affricates).

4. Rolled.

1. Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth. Occlusive noise consonants are called stops because the breath is com­pletely stopped at some point articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion, that is why, they are also called plo­sives. According to the work of the vocal cords stops may be

voiced and voiceless.

Occlusive voiced consonants are: the English [b, d, g] and the

Russian [6, 6', a, A'- r, r'].

Occlusive voiceless consonants are: the English [p, t, k] and

the Russian [n, n', t, t', k. k'].

According to the force of articulation English voiced stops are weak (lenis), voiceless are strong (fortis)'.

The particular quality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal.

The English occlusive nasal sonorants: [m, n, n].

The Russian occlusive nasal sonorants: [m, m', h, h'].

2. Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the res­onator, so the air passage is constricted. Both noise consonants and sonorants may be Constrictive.

Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, i. e. the consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air pas­sage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing

with friction.

The English fricatives: [f, v, 9, d, s, z, J, 3, h]; the Russian frica­tives: [cp, cp', b, b', c, c', 3, 3', m, uT, x.. x, x'].

Fricatives may also differ:

In the work of the vocal cords.

In the degree of force of articulation.

According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced

and voiceless.

The English voiced fricatives: [v, d, z, 3); the Russian voiced

fricatives: [b, b', 3, 3', »].

The English voiceless fricatives: [f, 9, s, J, h); the Russian voiceless fricatives: (cp, dp', c, c', m. m', x, x'].

According to the force of articulation voiced consonants are weak (lenis), voiceless consonants are strong

(fortis).

Constrictive sonorantsare also made with an incomplete ob­struction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise.

The English Constrictive sonorants: [w, r, I, j]; the Russian

Constrictive sonorants: [a, a', j].

They are all oral, because in their production the soft

palate is raised.

3. Occlusive-constrictiveconsonants or affricatesare noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives in English: [tf, 4$] and in Russian (h', 13]. The English [cfe] is voiced (in certain Positions) and weak (lenis); [tf] is voiceless and strong (fortis).

Affricates are oral according to the position of the soft palate.

4. Rolled consonants are sounds pronounced with periodical momentary obstructions when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge and vibrates in the air stream. They are the Russian [p, p'].

3. THE PIACE OF ARTICULATION

The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the first case consonants are called unicent ral.in the second they are b i c e n t r a 1.

Russian palatalized consonants are bicentral as the front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, forming a front secondary focus and thus palatalizing the consonants.

The Russian palatalized consonants [n', 6', (p', b', k', r', t', A', c', 3', p', m', h', a', x', m', fu'].

The English fricatives [f, 3] and affricates [tf, cfe] are also bi­central, being articulated with the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. This secondary focus is front (the primary focus is formed by the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge).

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The English bicentral sonorants (w) and the dark [*] have the back secondary focus because the, back part of the tongue is slightly raised towards the soft palate. .

According to the position of the active organ of speech

against the point of articulation (i. e. the place of articulation) consonants may be:

1. Labial.

2. Lingual.

3. Glottal.

1. Labial consonants are made by the lips. They may be bilabial and labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active. They are: the English [p, b, m, w]; and the Russian [n, n', 6, 6', m, m'].

Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip. against the edge of the upper teeth. They are the English [f, v] and the Russian {(p, (p', b, b'].

2. Lingual consonants are classified into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.

Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. They differ in the position of the tip of the tongue. According to its work they may be:

apical, if the tip of the tongue is active as in the case of the English [t, d, s, zj, 3,9, d, cfe, tf, n, \\.

dorsal, if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articu­lation , the tip being passive and lowered as in the case of the Russian [t, t', a. a'. h, h', c, c', 3, 3', m', u;]; in English there are no dorsal consonants;

c a c u m i n a 1, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue as in the case of the English [r] and the Russian |p, p'].

According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be:

Interdental.

Dental.

Alveolar.

Post-alveolar.

Palato-alveolar.

Interdental consonants or interdentals are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: the English (9. 6]. There are no interdental consonants in Russian.

Dental consonants or dentals are produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: the Russian [t, t',

A. A', C, C', 3, 3', 14, A, A'].