FRAME and SASH CONSTRUCTION
Frames and sashes can be made of the following materials:
| Material | Thermal resistance | Durability | Maintenance | Cost | Recycled content | Comment |
| wood | very good | variable | high | high | low | shrinks and swells with humidity change |
| vinyl or pvc | very good | good* | low | low | very low | |
| aluminum | bad** | good | very low | low | typically >95% | used in most large structures |
| steel | medium | superior | very low | high | >98% | typically welded at corner joints |
| fiberglass | very good | very good* | very low | high | medium |
* Vinyl and fiberglass frames perform well in accelerated weathering tests. Because vinyl is not as strong as other materials, some vinyl frames are reinforced with metal or composite materials to improve their structural strength.
** Modern aluminium window frames are typically separated by a thermal break made of a polyamide. This greatly increases thermal resistance, while retaining virtually all of the structural strength.
20 Express your opinion on the problem raised in Ex.15 and discuss it with your partner using the expressions from Appendix 1.
21 Read the abstract from a report “Solatube® Daylighting System” by Y. Selyanin and summarize it in 100-150 words in English. Use clichés and word combinations from Appendix 2:
Новые энергоэффективные системы дневного освещения “Solatube® Daylighting System” изменяют традиционные подходы к организации освещения помещений естественным светом и оказывают большое влияние на архитектуру и современное строительство в мире.
Работа системы Solatube® основана на современных технологиях передачи максимального количества дневного света, падающего на крышу дома, во внутренние помещения, с целью увеличения естественной освещенности от восхода до заката.
Система Solatube® состоит из светособирающего купола, располагаемого на крыше здания, выполненного из ударопрочного материала, который защищает от ультрафиолетового излучения; флешинга (адаптера под различные типы кровли); светодиода, представляющего собой набор стыкуемых алюминиевых труб прямолинейной или же изогнутой формы, покрытых изнутри многослойной пленкой из полимера, которая обеспечивает почти идеальную светопередачу 99,7%; и диффузора (светорассеивателя), который устанавливается в потолке освещаемого помещения.
Система солнечного (естественного) освещения Solatube® обеспечивает максимальную передачу света без потерь на расстоянии до 20-ти метров с минимальным притоком солнечного тепла. С соотношением энергетической эффективности более чем в 2 раза большей, чем большинство светодиодов, Solatube® является наилучшим выбором для обеспечения естественного освещения любого помещения или пространства.
Система Solatube® имеет дополнительные опции (регулирование интенсивности светового потока), световой комплект для ночного времени суток, вентиляционный комплект), использование которых значительно расширяет практику ее применения в инновационном строительстве.
Использование технологий Solatube® в инвестиционных проектах обеспечит снижение эксплуатационных расходов, способствуя оздоровлению окружающей среды.
When summarizing the article use these words and word combinations:
энергоэффективный – power efficient, работа – operation; передача максимального количества дневного света – maximum daylight transfer; светособирающий купол – light-collecting dome; ударопрочный материал – impact material; ультрафиолетовое излучение – ultraviolet light; стыкуемые алюминиевые трубы – joining aluminium pipes; многослойная пленка – composite film; минимальный приток солнечного тепла – minimum solar heat gain; снижение эксплуатационных расходов – lowering maintenance costs.
| The altitude, angle, and color of daylighting vary with compass orientation and time of a day. In the northern hemisphere: Daylight from NORTH – facing windows tends to be shadowless, diffuse, and neutral or slightly grayish most of the day and year. Daylight from the EAST is strongest in the morning. It tends to be of low altitude, with soft, long shadows, and gray-yellow in color. Daylight from the SOUTH is dominant from late morning to mid-afternoon. It tends to render colors accurately and cast strong, crisp shadows. Daylight from the WEST is strongest in the late afternoon and early evening and has a rich gold-orange cast. It can penetrate deeply into buildings and occasionally be overbearing. |
23 Topics for projects and presentations:
1. Types of windows.
2. Evolution of window production.
3. Stained-glass windows.
4. Window constructions and modern technologies.
5. Advanced technologies in window development.
“Architecture is the thoughtful making of space.”
Louis Kahn
| ARCHITECTURAL STYLES |
 |  |
Hatshepsut’s Temple The Roman Coliseum
Figure 2.1
| LEAD-IN |
1 What is “architecture”?Read the following information and compare your answer:
Architecture is often considered to be the oldest and the most useful of the fine arts, as in some respect it is a prerequisite for the other arts. Architecture can be defined, albeit unsatisfactorily, in four different ways. It is the art and method of erecting structures; it is a planned entity; it is a body or corpus of work; it is a way to build. An observer of architecture will note that it meets requirements on functional, technological, and aesthetic levels. Throughout history, architecture has been studied through buildings that have been substantial enough to survive the test of time.
2 a) What architectural styles do you know? Define “architectural style” as you see it:
From the olden days till date, the architectural styles have undergone a massive change. When one studies the different architectural styles, one can understand the kind of creativity that existed since the ancient days. Modern architects often look up to the olden styles of architecture, which continue to inspire professionals in terms of their design and functionality. Here are the descriptions of different architectural styles.
| Architectural Style | Description |
| Ancient Egyptian Architecture | Ancient Egyptian architecture is about the major use of mud bricks and stones for the architectural structures. The beautiful Egyptian temples and pyramids are some examples of this style of architecture. |
| Ancient Greek Architecture | Ancient Greek architecture can be distinguished by the specific elements such as the rectangular buildings and the large columns. |
| Baroque Architecture | Baroque architectural styles always played around with a dramatic use of light, central projections, ornamental decoration, and pear domes, etc. The works of Michelangelo created for the late Roman buildings belong to Baroque architecture. |
| Byzantine Architecture | The use of the circular dome is one of the typical elements of Byzantine architecture. |
| Chinese Architecture | Chinese architecture is all about the balance and symmetry in the design. The designs have an emphasis of the use of a horizontal axis. |
| Gothic Architecture | This architectural style was prominent during the high and the late medieval period and began at the Abbey of Saint-Denis. Its certain characteristics are pointed arches, large individual windows, flamboyant designs and the emphasis on the creation of vertical lines in the design. |
| Roman Architecture | The Roman architecture had a lot of influence from the Greek architecture. The use of the arches and domes are some of the characteristics of this style. The Roman temples, amphitheaters, baths, basilicas, etc. stand testimony to the greatness of this style. |
| Renaissance Architecture | This term refers to the architectural monuments built from the 15th century to the early 17th century. The common features of this style are the use of balance in the design, geometrical shapes, beautiful columns and domes, etc. |
| Russian Architecture | Russian architecture has always been predominantly religious. Some of the basic elements of Russian architecture are the sharp sloping roofs, domes that cover the structure, the tent shaped spires, etc. |
b) Choose any architectural style you like and make a report on it.
3
| “A proper building grows naturally, logically, and poetically out of all its conditions.” Louse Henry Sullivan (architect) |
| “Any design decision should be justified in at least two ways.” Matthew Frederick (architect) |
• Write a paraphrase of each quotation.• Say whether you agree or not, and why.
| READING |
4 a) In what context do you think the following words and phrases will appear in the text?
•techniques of working •wonder of the world •recalcitrant stones •temple •badly corroded but still impressive •enriched with statuary •notable monuments •superimposed terraces
b) Read the text quickly and check your answers:
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
During the Old Kingdom, the period when Egypt was ruled by the Kings of the 3d to 6th Dynasties, artists and craftsmen were drawn to the court to work under the patronage of the king and his great nobles. Techniques of working in stone, wood, and metal made tremendous progress, demonstrated by surviving large scale monuments, such as the pyramids of the 4th Dynasty and the sun temples built by the 5th Dynasty kings. The pyramids of the 4th Dynasty are the most spectacular of all the funeraryworks and the only remained wonder of the world. These monuments celebrated the divinity of the kings of Egypt, linking the people with the great gods of earth and sky.
This was a time when trade and the economy flourished. Craftsmen worked in the finest materials which were often brought great distances, and were able to experiment with recalcitrant stones as well as new techniques of metalworking. This enabled them by the 6th Dynasty to produce large metal figures. The earliest that survive are the copper statues of Pepi I and his son, found at Hierakonpolis. Made c. 2330 BC they are badly corroded but still impressive in their stiffly formal poses. The eyes are inlaid, and the crown and the kilt of the king, now missing, were probably originally made of gilded plaster.
During the prosperousperiod known as the middle kingdom fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders, and new areas of land were brought under cultivation. Craftsmen achieved new levels of excellence. Very little architecture remains – many royal monuments were robbed for their stone in later periods - but what has survived shows great simplicity and refinement. The example is the pyramid of Sesostris I at Lisht.
The establishment of the 18th Dynasty marked the beginning of the New Kingdom and a new blossomingof the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt. Craftsmen benefited from wider contact with other civilizations, such as those of Crete and Mesopotamia, and were also to work with imported raw materials.
The kings gave encouragements to artists and craftsmen by ordering great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt. The temple walls were covered with reliefs celebrating the achievements of the kings and the powers of the gods. The courtyards and inner sanctuaries were enriched with statuary. The most notable monuments are the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput at Deir-el-Bahari (c. 1480 BC; Fig. 2.1), which had a series of pillared colonnades on three sides of three superimposed terraces linked by gigantic ramps and magnificentGreat Temple at Karnak to Amon as the universal of Egypt.
Ancient Egyptian Architecture was revivedunder the Ptolemies, the successor of Alexander the Great, who built numerous temples of traditional style of which the finest examples that survive are the Temple of Horus at Etfu and the temples on the islands of Philae (c. 323 – 30 BC).
5 Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1-5):
1. Into what periods could ancient Egyptian architecture be classified?
2. What typical structures did the architecture of Egypt produce?
3. What is the only remained wonder of the world?
4. When did the final revival of ancient Egyptian architecture take place?
5. What are the greatest examples of the period of revival?
Follow-up
6 a) Find in the text the synonyms for the following words:
pharaohs; spectacular; gigantic; to protect; to plunder; modesty and elegance; to prosper; methods; to be adorned; impressively beautiful.