What do these numbers refer to?

12.7 Прочитай, переведи текст BUILDING DESIGN и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:

1. Building design professionals include those licensed by the state, such as architects and structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers, who must formally certify that the building they design will conform to all governmental codes and regulations. Architects are the primary design professionals; they orchestrate and direct the work of engineers as well as many other consultants in such specialized areas as lighting, acoustics, and vertical transportation.

2. The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived need for the structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its projected cost. The user or client brings these facts to a team of design professionals composed of architects and engineers, who can develop from them a set of construction documents that define the proposed building exactly and from which it can be constructed.

3. In addition to general knowledge of building science, the design team collects specific data related to the proposed building site. These include topographic and boundary surveys, investigations of subsoil conditions for foundation and water-exclusion design, and climate data and other local elements.

4. The process by which building science, site data, and the building space program are used by the design team is the art of building design. It is a complex process involving the selection of standard building systems, and their adaptation and integration to produce a building that meets the client’s needs within the limitations of government regulations and market standards. These systems have become divided into a number of clear sectors by the building type for which they are intended. The design process involves the selection of systems for foundations, structure, atmosphere, enclosure, space division, electrical distribution, water supply and drainage, and other building functions. These systems are made from a limited range of manufactured components but permit a wide range of variation in the final product. Once the systems and components have been selected, the design team prepares a set of contract documents consisting of a written text and conventionalized drawings to describe completely the desired building configuration in terms of the specified building systems and their expected performance. When the contract documents have been completed, the final costs of the building can usually be accurately estimated and the construction process can begin.

5. Concurrently with the collection of the site data, the design team works with the client to better define the often vague notions of building function into more precise and concrete terms. These definitions are summarized in a building space programme, which gives a detailed written description of each required space in terms of floor area, equipment, and functional performance criteria. This document forms an agreement between the client and the design team as to expected building size and performance.

6. The design professionals draw upon a number of sources in preparing their design. The most fundamental of these is building science, which has been gradually built up over the past 300 years. This includes the parts of physical theory that relate to building, such as the elastic theory of structures and theories of light, electricity, and fluid flow. There is also a large compendium of information on the specific properties of building materials that can be applied in mathematical models to reliably project building performance. There is also a large body of data on criteria for human comfort in such matters as thermal environment, lighting levels, and sound levels that influence a building design.

12.8 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What does the design of a building begin with?

2. Who develops construction documents?

3. What are design professionals’ responsibilities?

4. What sources do design professionals use to prepare their design?

5. What site information is required for design engineers?

6. What is a building space programme?

7. What is the definition of the art of building design?

8. What does the design process involve?

12.9 Прочитай, переведи текст COMPUTER-AIDED ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN и заполни пропуски:

1. The design process covers the complete life cycle of the building. The areas that are covered are construction, operations, reorganization, as well as destruction. Considering the shared use of digital design tools and the exchange of information and knowledge between designers and across different projects, we speak of a design continuum.

2. All CAD and CAAD systems employ a database with geometric and other properties of objects; they all have some kind of graphic user interface to manipulate a visual representation rather than the database; and they are all more or less concerned with assembling designs from standard and non-standard pieces.

3. These include topographic and boundary surveys, investigations of subsoil conditions for foundation and water-exclusion design, and climate data and other local elements.

4. It is a complex process involving the selection of standard building systems, and their adaptation and integration to produce a building that meets the client’s needs within the limitations of government regulations and market standards.

5. This includes the parts of physical theory that relate to building, such as the elastic theory of structures and theories of light, electricity, and fluid flow.

6. Once the systems and components have been selected, the design team prepares a set of contract documents consisting of a written text and conventionalized drawings to describe completely the desired building configuration in terms of the specified building systems and their expected performance.

7. These definitions are summarized in a building space programme, which gives a detailed written description of each required space in terms of floor area, equipment, and functional performance criteria.

8. Computer-aided design also known as CAD was originally the type of program that architects used, but since CAD couldn’t offer all the tools that architects needed to complete a project, CAAD developed as a distinct class of software.

9. The user or client brings these facts to a team of design professionals composed of architects and engineers, who can develop from them a set of construction documents that define the proposed building exactly and from which it can be constructed.

10. The design process involves the selection of systems for foundations, structure, atmosphere, enclosure, space division, electrical distribution, water supply and drainage, and other building functions.

11. These mappings are abstractions that are introduced in order to discuss the process of design and deployment of CAAD systems. In designing the systems the system developers usually consider TM1.

12. Architects are the primary design professionals; they orchestrate and direct the work of engineers as well as many other consultants in such specialized areas as lighting, acoustics, and vertical transportation.

13. Problems are often outlined and dealt with in a graphical approach. Only this form of expression serves as a basis for work and discussion.

The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived need for the structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its projected cost. _ .

Building design professionals include those licensed by the state, such as architects and structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers, who must formally certify that the building they design will conform to all governmental codes and regulations. _ .

The design professionals draw upon a number of sources in preparing their design. The most fundamental of these is building science, which has been gradually built up over the past 300 years. _ . There is also a large compendium of information on the specific properties of building materials that can be applied in mathematical models to reliably project building performance. There is also a large body of data on criteria for human comfort in such matters as thermal environment, lighting levels, and sound levels that influence a building design.

In addition to general knowledge of building science, the design team collects specific data related to the proposed building site. _ .

Concurrently with the collection of the site data, the design team works with the client to better define the often vague notions of building function into more precise and concrete terms. _ . This document forms an agreement between the client and the design team as to expected building size and performance.

The process by which building science, site data, and the building space program are used by the design team is the art of building design. _ .These systems have become divided into a number of clear sectors by the building type for which they are intended. _ .These systems are made from a limited range of manufactured components but permit a wide range of variation in the final product. _ .When the contract documents have been completed, the final costs of the building can usually be accurately estimated and the construction process can begin.

Computer-aided architectural design (CAAD) software programs are the repository of accurate and comprehensive records of buildings and are used by architects and civil engineers.

The first program was installed in the 1960’s to help architects save time instead of drawing their blueprints. _ .

_ .Currently, the main distinction which causes one to speak of CAAD rather than CAD lies in the domain knowledge (architecture-specific objects, techniques, data, and process support) embedded in the system. A CAAD system differs from other CAD systems in two respects:

It has an explicit object database of building parts and construction knowledge.

It explicitly supports the creation of architectural objects.

In a more general sense, CAAD also refers to the use of any computational technique in the field of architectural design. For example, software which is specifically developed for the computer animation industry (e.g. Maya and 3DStudio Max) is also used in architectural design.

CAAD has two types of structures in its program. The first system is surface structure which provides a graphics medium to represent three dimensional objects using two dimensional representations. The second system is deep structure which means that the operations performed by the computer have natural limitations. Computer hardware and machine languages that are supported by these make it easy to perform arithmetical operations quickly and accurately.

Another advantage to CAAD is the two-way mapping of activities and functionalities. The two instances of mapping are indicated to be between the surface structures (TM1) and the deep structures (TM2). _ . Here a one-to-one mapping is the typical statement which is to develop a computer-based functionality that maps as closely as possible into a corresponding manual design activity, for example, drafting of stairs, checking spatial conflict between building systems, and generating perspectives from orthogonal views. The architectural design processes tend to integrate models isolated so far. Many different kinds of expert knowledge, tools, visualization techniques, and media are to be combined. _ .

An architect’s work involves mostly visually represented data. _ .Therefore, the designer should have a maximum visual control over the processes taking place within the design continuum.

12.10 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What software programs are used in the building design?

2. What is CAAD?

3. Why was CAAD developed as a distinct class of software?

4. What is the difference between CAD and CAAD?

5. What systems does CAAD have?

6. What makes it easy to perform arithmetical operations effectively?

7. What is the two-way mapping of activities?

8. Does the design process cover the complete life cycle of a building?

9. What is meant by a design continuum?

10. How is a graphical approach used in the design process?

12.10 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What software programs are used in the building design?

2. What is CAAD?

3. Why was CAAD developed as a distinct class of software?

4. What is the difference between CAD and CAAD?

5. What systems does CAAD have?

6. What makes it easy to perform arithmetical operations effectively?

7. What is the two-way mapping of activities?

8. Does the design process cover the complete life cycle of a building?

9. What is meant by a design continuum?

10. How is a graphical approach used in the design process?

THE PAST TENSES

The Past Simpleупотребляется для выражения:

Ø действия, которое произошло в определенный момент в прошлом: They went to the seaside last spring.

Ø действий, которые происходили одно за другим в прошлом: He took a bath, shaved carefully, put on fresh shirt & left for the City.

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I He She It You We They	V3/ed	I He She It You We They	didn’t V1	Did	I he she it you we they	V1?

Ø привычек или обыкновений, которые сейчас отсутствуют (used to): Every afternoon he smoked/ used to smoke a thick black cigar after dinner.

Ø рассказов об умерших людях: Marilyn Monroe starred in a number of successful films.

Индикаторы: yesterday, last night/week/month/year/Monday, etc. two days/weeks/months, etc. ago, then, when, How long …?, in 1992/1845, etc.

Запомни: после [s], [k], [f], [p], -sh, -ch окончание –ed звучит как [t], после [m], [l], [b], [z], [v], [n], -g окончание звучит как [d], а после [t], [d] окончание –ed звучит как [id].

The Past Continuousупотребляется для выражения:

Ø длительного действия, совершающегося в определенный момент в прошлом: At three o’clock yesterday afternoon, they were sitting at an outdoor café.

Ø длительного действия, прерванного другим действием (в Past Simple): I was reading a book when the telephone rang.

Ø двух и более одновременных длительных действий: While she was cooking dinner, Ann was laying the table.

Ø описания атмосферы в художественных произведениях перед описанием основных действий: Todd & Emily were riding through the forest. The sun was shining & the birds were singing.

Ø постоянного процесса или раздражения в прошлом. В этих случаях часто употребляются наречия always, constantly, ever: They were always quarrelling.

Индикаторы: when, while, as, all day/night/morning, etc.

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I He She It	was Ving	I He She It	wasn’t Ving	Was	I he she it	Ving?
You We They	were Ving	You We They	weren’t Ving	Were	you we they	Ving?

Past Perfectупотребляется для выражения действия, которое:

Ø до другого действия в прошлом или до определенного момента в прошлом: They had already reserved the table when they went to the restaurant. They had already sat down for dinner by 8 pm.

Ø закончилось в прошлом и результат был виден в прошлом: Bill had injured his legs in a car accident, so he had to use a wheelchair for six month. (Past Perfect – эквивалент Present Perfect в прошлом.)

Ø Past Perfect = Past Simple с индикаторами before и after: She left after she had finished her work. = She left after she finished her work.

Индикаторы: before, after, already, for, since, just, till/until, when, by, by the time, never, etc.

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЕ	ОТРИЦАНИЕ	ВОПРОС
I He She It You We They	had V3/ed	I He She It You We They	hadn’t V3/ed	Had	I he she it you we they	V3/ed?

Past Perfect Continuousупотребляется для выражения действия:

Ø которое началось и закончилось в прошлом до другого действия или определенного момента в прошлом, чтобы подчеркнуть длительность: They had been skating together for five years before they entered the competition. Обычно употребляется с since и for.

Ø которое длилось в прошлом и результат был виден в прошлом: she had been working hard that day, so she was tired. (Past Perfect Continuous– эквивалент Present Perfect Continuous в прошлом.)

Индикаторы: for, since, how long, before, until, etc.