Read the dictionary definitions of “science” and “technology” given below.
Минск 2006
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1 я 73
M 54
Авторы:
Т.Г. Шелягова, И.И. Илюкевич, С.И. Лягушевич, И.Г. Маликова,
Ю.М. Амелина, Н.Н. Крипец, Н.А. Новик
Методическое пособие по развитию навыков устной речи и чтения на английском языке для аспирантов, магистрантов, соискателей и научных работников. / Т.Г. Шелягова,
И.И. Илюкевич, С.И. Лягушевич и др. – Мн.: БГУИР, 2006 – 91 с.
ISBN 985-488-040-0
Методическое пособие предназначено для аспирантов, магистрантов, соискателей и научных работников, готовящихся к сдаче кандидатского минимума по английскому языку.
Работа состоит из пяти тематических разделов: «Наука и общество», «Моя научно-исследовательская работа», «Конференции и симпозиумы», «Международное научное сотрудничество», «Средства массовой информации».
Каждый раздел представлен комплексом условно-речевых и речевых упражнений, образцами диалогической и монологической речи, речевых тематических ситуаций. Ознакомительное чтение с последующим выходом в говорение осуществляется на базе оригинальных и учебных текстов. В работе содержатся задания на формирования навыков письменной речи в виде написания докладов, резюме научных статей, заполнения анкет, заявлений, составления Curriculum Vitae, визитных карточек т.д.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1 я 73
ISBN 985-488-040-0
© Коллектив авторов, 2006
© БГУИР, 2006
UNIT 1
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
SECTION I
Language Focus
Read the dictionary definitions of “science” and “technology” given below.
Science – 1) the study of the physical world and its manifestations, especially by using systematic observation and experiment. 2)a branch of science of a particular area of study. E.G. the life sciences
Technology – 1) the study, development, and application of devices, machines, and techniques for manufacturing and productive processes. E.G. recent developments in seismographic technology… 2) a method or methodology that applies technical knowledge or tools. E.G. a new technology for accelerating incubation…
Now look at the following list. In your groups, decide which you would include under science and which under technology and why.
| biology | machinery | ||
| chemistry | mathematics | ||
| electronics | mechanics | ||
| geography | physics | ||
| hydraulics | sociology |
Find the word that does not belong in each horizontal group.
| a | arithmetic | algebra | genetics | geometry | trigonometry |
| b | geography | psychology | economics | sociology | anthropology |
| c | geology | meteorology | mineralogy | geophysics | statistics |
| d | mechanics | thermodynamics | astrophysics | law | cosmology |
| e | physiology | astronomy | botany | zoology | anatomy |
Match the following definitions to the groups of four words that you identified above.
| a | The mathematical sciences - investigating the relationships between things that can be measured or quantified in either a real or abstract form. |
| b | The physical sciences - investigating the nature and behavior of matter and energy on a vast range of size and scale. |
| c | The earth sciences - examining the structure and composition of our planet, and the physical processes that have helped to shape it. |
| d | The life sciences - studying of living things:a principal branch of science concerned with plants, animals, and other living organisms. |
| e | The social sciences - exploring human society past and present, and the way human beings behave. |
Make up English-Russian pairs of the words and word-combinations equivalent in meaning.
| advance | a | вести научные наблюдения | |
| applied science | b | достижение | |
| belief | c | методический подход | |
| endeavor | d | мнение, убеждение | |
| instance | e | накапливать, собирать | |
| systematic approach | f | отдельный пример, случай | |
| systematic study | g | открывать, обнаруживать | |
| to accumulate | h | получать, приобретать | |
| to detect | i | попытка, старание, стремление | |
| to gain | g | прикладная наука | |
| to observe | k | проверять, тестировать | |
| to test | l | проверять, подтверждать | |
| to verify | m | систематическое изучение |
Complete the collocates below by matching an adjective from A with a noun from B. Some can combine with more than one noun.
Example: practical application, purpose, gain, use.
| A | basic | B | advances | knowledge |
| common | analysis | method | ||
| current | application | opinion | ||
| important | approach | organization | ||
| industrial | belief | part | ||
| international | breakthrough | prediction | ||
| objective | Bureau | property | ||
| personal | corporation | research | ||
| physical | Council | revolution | ||
| pure | forum | role | ||
| scientific | idea | science | ||
| systematic | instrument | society | ||
| technological | investigation | theory |
Science and technology
The 1__ of the terms science and technology have changed significantly from one generation to another. More 2__ than differences, however, can be found between the terms.
Both science and technology imply a thinking 3__, both are concerned with causal relationships in the material world, and both employ an experimental methodology that results in empirical demonstrations that can be verified by 4__. Science, at least in theory, is less concerned with the practicality of its results and more concerned with the 5__ of general laws, but in practice science and technology are inextricably involved 6__ each other. The varying interplay of the two can be observed in the historical development of such practitioners as chemists, engineers, 7__, astronomers, carpenters, potters, and many other specialists. Differing educational requirements, social status, 8__, methodology, and types of rewards, as well as institutional objectives and professional goals, contribute 9__ such distinctions as can be made between the activities of scientists and technologists; but throughout history the practitioners of “pure” science have made many 10__ as well as theoretical contributions.
Indeed, the concept that science provides the ideas for technological innovations and that 11__ research is therefore essential for any significant advancement in industrial civilization is essentially a 12__. Most of the greatest changes in industrial civilization cannot be traced to the laboratory. Fundamental tools and processes in the fields of 13__, chemistry, astronomy, metallurgy, and hydraulics were developed before the laws governing their functions were discovered. The steam 14__, for example, was commonplace before the science of thermodynamics elucidated the physical principles underlying its operations.
In recent years a sharp value distinction has grown up between science and technology. Advances in science have frequently had their bitter opponents, but today many people have come to fear technology much more than science. For these people, science may be perceived as a 15__, objective source for understanding the eternal laws of nature, whereas the practical manifestations of technology in the modern world now seem to them to be out of control.
| A | meanings | B | methods | C | means | D | measures | |
| A | subdivisions | B | distinctions | C | commodities | D | similarities | |
| A | processing | B | process | C | processor | D | processed | |
| A | review | B | revision | C | repetition | D | repertoire | |
| A | advantage | B | upgrade | C | work out | D | development | |
| A | on | B | with | C | of | D | without | |
| A | physicists | B | physics | C | psychology | D | psychiatry | |
| A | dictionary | B | thesaurus | C | vocabulary | D | glossary | |
| A | at | B | to | C | in | D | on | |
| A | practice | B | practicality | C | practitioner | D | practical | |
| A | clean | B | pure | C | fresh | D | clear | |
| A | myth | B | ballad | C | tale | D | legend | |
| A | mechanic | B | mechanism | C | mechanics | D | mechanical | |
| A | engineer | B | engine | C | engineering | D | engineered | |
| A | serene | B | serenade | C | sequence | D | series |
8. Give all possible derivatives of the following words:
To describe, to develop, to discover, to examine, to exist, to investigate, to know, to predict.
SECTION II
Speaking
In the interviews which follow, a number of scientists express their opinions on the path of scientific development and the qualities needed in a contemporary research worker. Study the interviews and work on them.
Imagine that you are participating in the interviews. Which of the speakers do you most agree with? Why? Introducing your point of view and interfering into communication say: Allow me to say this, will you? May I make a comment on what you have just said? I want to come in on this if I may? May I take up that point which I find most interesting?
| Question 1: | How do you explain the fact that in the past few decades science has come to occupy such an important place in the life of the society? |
| Answers: | |
| Academician A.: | We all know that our present age is the age of the scientific and technological revolution. Thanks to its achievements, people have for the first time really come to discover the fundamental laws of nature: they have penetrated the depths of the atom, are investigating the world of distant stars, the laws of heredity and essence of life. The achievements of science have penetrated into all spheres of life. |
| Academician B.: | In the last few decades science has come to occupy such an important place in the life of the society because the results of scientific investigation are very important for the improving of living conditions, transport, communications, etc. |
| Professor C.: | Scientific information is being accumulated and the number of scientific personnel is increasing at the rate which has never before existed. Judge for yourselves: ninety percent of the knowledge which mankind has at its disposal today has been acquired to the last fifty years; between eighty and ninety percent of all scientists who have ever existed on this earth live in our epoch; the quantity of scientific publications and the number of specialist journals doubles practically every ten years. |
| Professor D.: | … because of the great achievements of the past few decades: the successes in mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology. |
| Question 2: | Which of the problems now facing mankind do you consider the most important and what, in your opinion, can be done to solve them? |
| Answers: | |
| Academician E.: | Even the simplest list of the most important problems facing mankind today would take up too much space. But the main condition, which is essential for the solution of these problems, is peace throughout the whole world, and the close collaboration of people of different nationalities and religions in the further development of productive forces on our planet. |
| Professor F.: | I suppose discoveries in the field of the all-round exploration of solar energy. They are extraordinarily necessary and that means they cannot fail to appear. |
| Dr. J.: | It would be splendid if we could succeed in bridling the three main “killers” of this century – cancer, heart diseases and AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). |
| Question 3: | How does science help industry? |
| Answers: | |
| Academician K.: | The application of scientific knowledge is also the task of the scientist. The attaining of truth is only one of the functions of science: its second function is the creation of all possible kinds of technical devices. |
| Academician L.: | The scientist must concern himself with how the knowledge he has acquired can be applied in the economy. Scientific achievements must, in the shortest time possible, be put into practice. Of course, to combine knowledge with fundamental and applied science is not that simple… |
Look through passage 4. Using the information of the passage and your own experience develop the idea that science today has a profound effect on the way we live. Give as many examples as possible. Discuss them in small groups or in pairs.
Scan passage 5 and say whether you agree with the author that scientific discoveries can also have a negative effect in human affairs. Discuss the examples of the author and add those which are not mentioned.
In your discussion use the following words and word combinations:
a negative impact; to have unwanted and unexpected long-term effects; to pollute the global environment; to contaminate; toxic gases; a rising tide of waste; carbon dioxide; global warming; climate change; ethical questions; genetic engineering; destructive weapons.
13. Now compare the positive sides of the development of science and its negative impacts. Discuss the situation in small groups. Comment on the statement: ‘Science can be neither good nor evil.’
SECTION III
Reading
Comprehension check
Our Vision
We envision a future where our contributions to the physical, biological, and environmental sciences have transformed the world as we know it. Our discoveries have changed forever how we provide for life’s most basic needs – and how we view our own existence within a complex, ever-changing universe.
By 2023, science will have helped us achieve a large measure of energy independence. The energy intensity of our economy decreases, and energy sources are now more plentiful and clean. There is a new, more competitive menu of renewable energy sources, a safer generation of nuclear power, a hydrogen-based energy storage utilization infrastructure, and an efficient energy distribution network that is greatly enhanced by breakthroughs in nano-designed materials, computation, and other relevant fields of science. Having completed key experiments, the promise of fusion power – clean, almost limitless energy – is closer than ever.
We see a world where science provides enduring solutions to the environmental challenges posed by growing world populations and energy use. New, cost-effective approaches, some based on the use of engineered microbes, enable us to tackle some of our most intractable cleanup problems. On a global scale, we have a clearer picture of the complex process of climate change, and we have solutions in hand made possible through the biological and environmental sciences, and in particular, through genomics1.
Through 2023, science will sustain critical growth and strength in the world’s economy. During this period, entirely new industries will be created, and virtually all industries will benefit through the enormously broad reach of breakthroughs in energy and the physical sciences. Our mastery of catalysis, nano-assembly, self-replicating, and complex systems will not only increase our industrial efficiency, but it will create entirely new opportunities for harnessing the power of our material world.
Science fiction will give way to science fact as medical miracles unfold and a new set of promises arises to fill the void. DOE2 will continue to capitalize on its strength at the nexus of the physical and life sciences, delivering the nanoscience, biology, precision engineering, and advanced computation that will ‘close the deal’ in these developments and secure our valued contributing role in medical science. Restoring sight to the blind with microassembled retinal implants will start the journey, with the next stop, hope for those with spinal cord injuries.
As the future unfolds, not only do people enjoy an improved quality of life, but they are more secure. DOE science will have provided the science behind innovations in monitors, sensors, computational analysis, structures, materials, and countless areas that help to provide early threat detection and protect those that we serve.
In the not-too-distant future, our universe will seem more familiar to us, and the mysterious properties of matter and energy less complex. Our pursuit of answers to some of the most persistent questions of science will have revealed important secrets.
At the end of the day, we envision a future where our discoveries have resulted in improved benefits to mankind, whether it was to light the night, heat a home, transport food, cure an illness, or to see and understand the beginning of time itself.
Notes:
| Genomics– | the study of the relationships between gene structure and biological function in organisms. | |
| DOE– | Department of Energy. |
SECTION IV
Writing
Read the extract from the interview with British physicist Clifford Johnson, one of the world’s leading theoreticians in the field of elementary particle physics answering the question why it is important that scientists be open-minded. Then write a composition giving your opinion on the question. Prove your opinion by the examples from modern science and technology.
Being open-minded is what science is all about. The best science operates by letting our observations about nature determine what our theories of the world should be. Theories are tested by making verifiable predictions that can then be demonstrated through experiment.
One of the finest examples of this is Galileo. In the 16th century, following Copernicus, he put forth the idea that planets and other local heavenly bodies actually revolve around the Sun, not the Earth. At the time, Earth was believed to be the center of the universe, for religious reasons. The established religious community ridiculed both Copernicus and Galileo. Galileo used a telescope, which he constructed, and showed that Venus exhibits phases as it goes around the Sun (like the Moon does as it goes around the Earth) and that moons orbit Jupiter. These are both predictions of the idea that heavenly bodies can move around objects other than the Earth, an idea contrary to the prevailing view.
Galileo also demonstrated through experiments that light and heavy objects fall at the same rate. The Aristotelian view was that this rate depended on the weight of the falling object, so there was great resistance to this idea despite the experimental evidence.
The best modern-day scientists still operate in this tradition. New data comes along as we do new experiments. This data is assimilated into current theories. At some point, if overwhelming evidence from an experiment cannot support current theory, scientists abandon the old ideas. This is the exercise of open-mindedness in a controlled and fruitful way. However, accepting an idea on flimsy evidence is also not a good way of practicing science, and this can be just as bad as refusing to have an idea challenged.
2. Write a short essay on the latest developments in the field of science you are doing your research in. Make use of the following phrases:
to be engaged in; to conduct research; to make an experiment; to provide scientific knowledge; to meet human needs; to develop new approach to; a landmark of scientific achievement; research priorities in; to foretell the scientific breakthroughs; to improve the quality of life; to create new, innovative technologies.
UNIT 2
RESEARCH WORK
SECTION I
Language focus
SECTION II
Speaking
Answer the questions below.
Example:
- I work in close contact with my scientific supervisor. And what about you?
- I work in close contact with my scientific supervisor too.
| Scientific conferences are a good possibility to get new knowledge, to make some scientific and friendly contacts with specialists to exchange views and ideas on this or that point. What do you think of it? | |
| My friend works in close contact with the scientists of National Academy of Sciences. And what about your friend? | |
| Our university cooperates very fruitfully with universities of China. And what about your university? | |
| My scientific supervisor recommends me to take part in various scientific conferences and seminars. And what about your supervisor? | |
| Conferences play an important role in making young researchers real scholars. What’s your idea of this? | |
| I am especially interested in applied issues. And you? | |
| I have received a lot of useful information to cultivate my theme. And what about you? | |
| Different types of study demand a high level of intellectual ability in order to cope with the pressures of having to understand what are likely to be complex arguments, facts or theories. What do you think of it? | |
| I was given the opportunity to carry out an extensive literature search to look for the gaps in the field I was working. And you? | |
| I particularly like the flexibility to do what I want and also to work with state-of-the-art technology. And what about you? |
Dialogue 1
| Peter: | Hello, Mike! |
| Mike: | Oh, Peter! Haven’t seen you for ages! What are you doing here in Minsk? I know you live in Vitebsk. |
| Peter: | You are quite right. But this year I have become a post-graduate student of the University of Informatics and Radioelectronics. Do you remember that I was interested in research work when a student? |
| Mike: | Oh, yes, I do. And, of course, you want to carry on research in radioengineering. Am I right? |
| Peter: | Absolutely right you are. I have a particular interest in this field of knowledge. |
| Mike: | That’s fine! I congratulate you on a good beginning. They say: “Well begun is half done”. I wish you much success in your research. |
| Peter: | Thanks a lot. |
Dialogue 2
| Post-graduate: | What is your opinion of my last article? |
| Professor: | There is a great deal in it that is new, and a great deal that is true…. |
| Post-graduate: | Do you really mean … ? |
| Professor: | … but it, unfortunately, happens that those portions which are new are not true, and those which are true are not new. |
Dialogue 3
| Post-graduate: | I hear you said my new article was the worst I ever wrote. |
| Professor: | No, I didn’t. I said it was the worst article anybody ever wrote. |
My Research Work
1. I am an engineer of the nano- and microelectronics department of the Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics. My special subject is the technology of radio, nano- and microelectronic devices. I combine practical work with scientific research. So I am a doctoral candidate.
2. I am doing research in hybrid circuit technology which is now widely accepted for all types of electronic products. This branch of knowledge has been rapidly developing in the last two decades. The obtained results have already found wide application in most varied spheres of the country’s national economy.
3. I am particularly interested in that part of hybrid circuit technology which includes the production of passive elements of circuits by electrochemical oxidation of metals. I have been working at the problem for two years. I got interested in it when a student. My work is primarily of practical importance. It is based on the theory developed by the collaborators of our department. So I can say that I work in close cooperation with my colleagues. We also closely collaborate with several enterprises of our republic and other countries. There are several research teams at our department. The team I work in is headed by Doctor of technical sciences professor S.V.Petrov. He is my scientific supervisor. I always consult him when I encounter difficulties in my research. We often discuss the obtained data.
4. I am rather an experimentator than a theoretician. My research involves mathematical and statistical analysis, simulations and practical measurements using expensive equipment which is only available in very few universities. The methods used in my work are: anodizing in a galvanostatic regime, oxidation in a cathode regime and some others. The obtained data enabled me to define more precisely the theoretical model of anodic oxide films growth.
5. I have not yet completed the experimental part of my thesis, but I am through with the theoretical part. I have published 10 scientific papers so far, some of which were written when I was a student. Two of them were published in the journals of Japan and Austria. I take part in various scientific conferences where I make reports on my subject. I willingly participate in scientific discussions and debates.
6. I am planning to finish writing the thesis by the end of the next year and defend it in the scientific council of the University of Informatics and Radioelectronics. I hope to get the scientific degree of a candidate of technical sciences.
SECTION III
Reading
Starter activity.
Before you read the text below say what you know about postgraduate courses in the U.K.? What is the difference between the courses by instruction and research courses? What qualities are required by these two different types of postgraduate study? What additional qualities does a research course demand? Do you think it’s easy to choose a course of study?
Matter of Course
A quick look through the postgraduate prospectus of any UK university will reveal that there are two distinct types of study possible, the first by instruction and the second by research. Universities do not always offer both types of study in the same subject area, so you may need to hunt around for the course, which you think, will be best for you.
Courses by Instruction
The most common type of course in terms of the numbers of people undertaking them are courses by instruction, or taught courses as they are sometimes called.
Taught courses normally take one year and usually lead to a higher degree such as a Master of Science (MSc) or a Master of Arts (MA). Applicants should usually hold a degree in the same subject as the intended area of study, but there are some important exceptions to this rule, particularly in subjects such as information technology and business administration. Where an appropriate qualification is not held, it is sometimes possible to undertake a preliminary course, such as a certificate or a diploma, in order to prepare for the more advanced study to follow.
Degrees by instruction are very similar to undergraduate courses in that most of the time is devoted to attending lectures. This may take up the first eight or nine months of the course and is followed by written examinations. A period of research lasting for two or three months usually follows and the results of it are presented in the form of the thesis. Finally, an oral examination is held, lasting perhaps an hour or two, to test the knowledge accumulated throughout the year. It is important to perform satisfactorily in every part of this assessment procedure.
Research Courses
As with taught courses, it is usually necessaryto hold a degree in the same subject as that for which the research is planned. The nature of this type of study is completely different, however, from that taken through a taught course. First of all it lasts for longer. The most popular qualification is a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which usually takes three years. There is the shorter version called a Master of Philosophy (MPhil), but minimum amount of time, which this takes, is usually two years. Both of these qualifications require the student to carry out a piece of innovative research in a particular area of study. It is essential that the work has never been done before. The person who supervises a research degree will be aware of the range of options available and will be able to advise on what is and is not possible.
The start of a research degree involves a very extensive survey of all previous work undertaken in that area. At the same time, if the student is planning to carry out any practical experimentation, the necessary equipment will need to be obtained.
The preliminary part of the study can take up to six months, but it is important to note that the process of keeping up to date with other work going on in the subject must continue throughout the entire period of the research.
The next stage of a research course usually involves collecting information in some way. This might be through experimentation, in the case of arts, social sciences or humanities degree. The important thing is that something new must be found.
This second part of the procedure takes about two years in the case of a PhD. The research is written up in the form of a thesis during the final six months of the three-year period. Typically, this will contain an introduction, methodology, results and discussion. As in the case with taught degrees, the research must then be examined orally. Occasionally, if the examiners are not completely happy with the work they may ask the candidate to rewrite parts of the thesis. Hopefully, a good supervisor will make sure this does not happen!
Qualities Needed
Broadly speaking, these two different types of study require similar qualities from the people who undertake them. Both demand an inquisitive mind that will maintain the kind of motivation required to keep wanting to learn and discover new information.
They also both demand a high level of intellectual ability in order to cope with the pressures of having to understand what are likely to be complex arguments, facts or theories. Both require a high degree of organizational ability and time management, as so many different things need to be attended to.
However, a period of study by research demands additional qualities. For example, it is not at all uncommon for research to work out entirely different from what was hoped or planned. Expected results may not materialize, experiments may not work, and so on. At times such as these it is essential to stay calm and to keep on trying. In other words, you need to be very patient. Because research requires something new to be found or achieved, it is also important to enjoy solving problems and to have a lot of confidence in your own creative ability.
Choosing a Course
If you are in the position of trying to decide whether to do further study by a taught course or by research, it is important to consider how you would answer the following questions.
First, what do you want to achieve through the study? The answer to this question will include a consideration of the likely employment prospects, which will follow your study. If your future work will demand specific knowledge, then a taught course might provide you with this. On the other hand, if you intend to follow a research career, then a research qualification might be more suitable.
The second question involves asking yourself whether you have the right qualities for the type of study you would like to do. You will need to give serious thought to whether you really do have the extra qualities which research demands over and above those required by a taught course.
2. Read the text “Academic Degrees” and look for the answers to the following questions:
| a | What is an academic degree? |
| b | What was the first recorded academic degree? |
| c | What are four principal types of academic degrees conferred by American institutions? |
| d | What is the best-known academic degree? |
| e | What are the most frequently awarded master’s degrees? |
| f | Who is a doctor in an academic sense? |
| g | What does the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree represent? |
Academic Degrees
An academic degree is a title awarded by a college or university for successfully completing a course of study or for a particular attainment. Earned degrees are bestowed for completion of courses of study; honorary degrees recognize a certain attainment, not necessarily connected with an educational institution.
Development of degrees
Academic degrees have been in use for about 800 years; the first one recorded was the Doctor of Civil Law conferred by the University of Bologna (Italy) in the middle of the 12th century. This was followed by the Doctor of Canon Law and Doctor of Divinity and, in the 13th century, by doctorates in medicine, grammar, logic and philosophy. The use of degrees spread from Bologna to other European universities. Originally the doctor’s (from Latin doctor, “teacher”; from docere, “to teach”) and master’s degrees were used interchangeably, each indicating that the holders were qualified to teach, and the titles of Master, Doctor and Professor were synonymous. On the other hand, the bachelor’s or baccalaureate degree (from Latin baccalaureus, a bachelor of arts) was used to indicate the entrance upon a course of study preparatory to the doctorate or mastership, and not achievement. Gradually, however, it came to mean successful completion of one level of study preparatory to a higher degree.
The use of academic degrees spread to British universities from the Continent and was extensively developed, especially at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The doctorate in music was conferred by these universities in the 15th century. Today there are an increasing variety of degrees in British universities, as in U.S institutions.
Types of degrees
Four principal types of academic degrees – associate, bachelor, master and doctor, representing different levels of academic achievement, are conferred by American institutions of higher education; a few institutions confer additional types of degrees, representing other levels of achievement.
Bachelor’s degree
The bachelor’s degree, usually representing completion of a four-year course of study on a collegiate level, is the oldest and the best-known academic degree, particularly under the designation of Bachelor of Arts. Some varieties of bachelor’s, or baccalaureate, degree is currently offered by about 750 institutions, most of which offer a Bachelor of Science in Education. Other baccalaureate degrees offered by a large number of institutions are Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Business Administration, Bachelor of Divinity, and Bachelor of Home Economics. Most institutions offer more than one variety of Baccalaureates, but about one tenth report use of the Bachelor of Arts only, regardless of the particular curriculum completed.
Master’s degree
The earned master’s degree in general represents one year of work beyond the baccalaureate, but in a few institutions or in a few fields it requires two years of graduate work. The most frequently awarded master’s degrees are Master of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Education, Master of Business Administration, Master of Music and Master of Fine Arts. The Master of Philosophy degree is conferred to those who have completed all requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree except the doctoral dissertation.
Doctor’s degree
The Doctor’s Degree represents the most advanced earned degree conferred by U.S. institutions, or indeed by those of any country. In the academic sense, a doctor is an individual in any faculty or branch of learning who has attained to the highest degree conferred by a university. Doctor’s degrees in the United States are of two distinct types – professional or practitioner’s degrees, and research degrees.
The former represent advanced training for the practice of various professions, chiefly in medicine and law. The principal ones are Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dental Science, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy and Doctor of Jurisprudence. These degrees carry on implication of advanced research.
Quite different in character are the research doctorates representing prolonged periods of advanced study, usually at least three years beyond the baccalaureate, accompanied by a dissertation designed to be a substantial contribution to the advancement of knowledge. The most important of these is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which no longer implies knowledge of philosophy, but which represents advanced research in any major field of knowledge. It was first awarded by Yale University in 1861, young men desiring the most advanced training in scholarship attended the principal German and occasionally other European universities to secure their Ph.D’s.
Second in importance and much more recent as a research degree is the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.). It was first awarded by Harvard in1920, but was preceded by the equivalent Doctor of Pedagogy first conferred by New York University in 1891. The only other earned doctorates of the research type currently conferred by 10 or more institutions are the Doctor of the Science of Law and the Doctor of Business Administration.
How Scientists Work
Scientific research can be divided into basic science, also known as pure science, and applied science. In basic science, scientists working primarily at academic institutions pursue research simply to satisfy the thirst for knowledge. In applied science, scientists at industrial corporations conduct research to achieve some kind of practical or profitable gain.
In practice, the division between basic and applied science is not always clear-cut. This is because discoveries that initially seem to have no practical use often develop one as time goes by. For example, superconductivity, the ability to conduct electricity with no resistance, was little more than a laboratory curiosity when Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovered it in 1911. Today superconducting electromagnets are used in an ever-increasing number of important applications, from diagnostic medical equipment to powerful particle accelerators.
Scientists study the origin of the solar system by analyzing meteorites and collecting data from satellites and space probes. They search for the secrets of life processes by observing the activity of individual molecules in living cells. They observe the patterns of human relationships in the customs of aboriginal tribes. In each of these varied investigations the questions asked and the means employed to find answers are different. All the inquiries, however, share a common approach to problem solving known as the scientific method. Scientists may work alone or they may collaborate with other scientists. In all cases, a scientist’s work must measure up to the standards of the scientific community. Scientists submit their findings to science forums, such as science journals and conferences, in order to subject the findings to the scrutiny of their peers.
Scientific Method
Whatever the aim of their work, scientists use the same underlying steps to organize their research: (1) they make detailed observations about objects or processes, either as they occur in nature or as they take place during experiments; (2) they collect and analyze the information observed; and (3) they formulate a hypothesis that explains the behaviour of the phenomena observed.
Formulating a Hypothesis
Once an experiment has been carried out and data collected and analyzed, scientists look for whatever pattern their results produce and try to formulate a hypothesis that explains all the facts observed in an experiment. In developing a hypothesis, scientists employ methods of induction to generalize from the experiment’s results to predict future outcomes, and deduction to infer new facts from experimental results.
Formulating a hypothesis may be difficult for scientists because there may not be enough information provided by a single experiment, or the experiment’s conclusion may not fit old theories. Sometimes scientists do not have any prior idea of a hypothesis before they start their investigations, but often scientists start out with a working hypothesis that will be proved or disproved by the results of the experiment. Scientific hypotheses can be useful, just as hunches and intuition can be useful in everyday life. But they can also be problematic because they tempt scientists, either deliberately or unconsciously, to favor data that support their ideas. Scientists generally take great care to avoid bias, but it remains an ever-present threat. Throughout the history of science, numerous researchers have fallen into this trap, either in the hope of self-advancement or because they firmly believe their ideas to be true.
If a hypothesis is borne out by repeated experiments, it becomes a theory—an explanation that seems to consistently fit with the facts. The ability to predict new facts or events is a key test of a scientific theory. In the 17th century German astronomer Johannes Kepler proposed three theories concerning the motions of planets. Kepler’s theories of planetary orbits were confirmed when they were used to predict the future paths of the planets. On the other hand, when theories fail to provide suitable predictions, these failures may suggest new experiments and new explanations that may lead to new discoveries. For instance, in 1928 British microbiologist Frederick Griffith discovered that the genes of dead virulent bacteria could transform harmless bacteria into virulent ones. The prevailing theory at the time was that genes were made of proteins. But studies performed by Canadian-born American bacteriologist Oswald Avery and colleagues in the 1930s repeatedly showed that the transforming gene was active even in bacteria from which protein was removed. The failure to prove that genes were composed of proteins spurred Avery to construct different experiments and by 1944 Avery and his colleagues had found that genes were composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), not proteins.
Science Publications
In science, publication follows a formal procedure that has set rules of its own. Scientists describe research in a scientific paper, which explains the methods used, the data collected, and the conclusions that can be drawn. In theory, the paper should be detailed enough to enable any other scientist to repeat the research so that the findings can be independently checked.
Scientific papers usually begin with a brief summary, or abstract, that describes the findings that follow. Abstracts enable scientists to consult papers quickly, without having to read them in full. At the end of most papers is a list of citations—bibliographic references that acknowledge earlier work that has been drawn on in the course of the research. Citations enable readers to work backwards through a chain of research advancements to verify that each step is soundly based.
Scientists typically submit their papers to the editorial board of a journal specializing in a particular field of research. Before the paper is accepted for publication, the editorial board sends it out for peer review. During this procedure a panel of experts, or referees, assesses the paper, judging whether or not the research has been carried out in a fully scientific manner. If the referees are satisfied, publication goes ahead. If they have reservations, some of the research may have to be repeated, but if they identify serious flaws, the entire paper may be rejected for publication.
The peer-review process plays a critical role because it ensures high standards of scientific method. However, it can be a contentious area, as it allows subjective views to become involved. Because scientists are human, they cannot avoid developing personal opinions about the value of each other’s work. Furthermore, because referees tend to be senior figures, they may be less than welcoming to new or unorthodox ideas.
Once a paper has been accepted and published, it becomes part of the vast and ever-expanding body of scientific knowledge. In the early days of science, new research was always published in printed form, but today scientific information spreads by many different means. Most major journals are now available via the Internet (a network of linked computers), which makes them quickly accessible to scientists all over the world.
When new research is published, it often acts as a springboard for further work. Its impact can then be gauged by seeing how often the published research appears as a cited work. Major scientific breakthroughs are cited thousands of times a year, but at the other extreme, obscure pieces of research may be cited rarely or not at all. However, citation is not always a reliable guide to the value of scientific work. Sometimes a piece of research will go largely unnoticed, only to be rediscovered in subsequent years. Such was the case for the work on genes done by American geneticist Barbara McClintock during the 1940s. McClintock discovered a new phenomenon in corn cells known as transposable genes, sometimes referred to as jumping genes. McClintock observed that a gene could move from one chromosome to another, where it would break the second chromosome at a particular site, insert itself there, and influence the function of an adjacent gene. Her work was largely ignored until the 1960s when scientists found that transposable genes were a primary means for transferring genetic material in bacteria and more complex organisms. McClintock was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for her work in transposable genes, more than 35 years after performing the research.
Glossary:
| pursue | [pq'sju:] | выполнять |
| curiosity | ["kjVqri'Psqti] | любопытство |
| scrutiny | ['skru:tqni] | критический разбор; рассмотрение |
| instantaneously | ["Instqn'teIniqslI] | мгновенно, немедленно |
| infer | [In'fE:] | делать (логический вывод), выводить (заключение) |
| hunch | [hAntS] | предчувствие, подозрение |
| unconsciously | [An'kPnSqsli] | бессознательно |
| bias | ['baIqs] | пристрастие, предубеждение |
| confirm | [kqn'fE:m] | подтверждать |
| spur | [spE:] | побуждать |
| submit | [sqb'mIt] | представлять на рассмотрение |
| assess | [q'ses] | оценивать |
| flaw | [flO:] | упущение, ошибка |
| reject | [rI'Gekt] | отвергать, отклонять |
| contentious | [kqn'tenSqs] | спорный |
| obscure | [qb'skjVq] | неясный, непонятый |
Comprehension check
Supervising
A scientific supervisor is a person who can combine at least two qualities of almost equal importance: being a scientist and being a supervisor. But actually there is one more, not less significant quality implied by this phrase: being a pedagog. Only the harmony of these characteristics can succeed in giving excellent results, thus it can be fruitful for both, the scientific supervisor himself and his post-graduate. So, being a scientist implies the availability of the following characteristics:
| a | original and sustained thinking “No problem can stand the assault of sustained thinking” (Voltaire) |
| b | inquiring mind “The incomparable enjoyment in finding exact answers to all questions” |
| c | purposefulness and persistence “Great works are performed not by strength, but perseverance” (Samuel Johnson) |
| d | perfectionism “There is always a better way … your challenge is to find it”. |
Being a supervisor implies:
| a | excellence excellence can be attained if you: - care more than others think is wise; - risk more than others think is safe; - dream more than others think is practical; - expect more than others think is possible. |
| b | responsibility and self-demand “Hold yourself responsible for a higher standard than anybody else expects of you. Never excuse yourself” (Henry Ward Beecher) |
| c | discipline, organization and consistency |
| d | self-assessment and reflexivity |
| e | self-confidence and optimism “Failure is success if we learn from it” (Malcolm Forbs) |
Being a pedagog implies:
| a | being a personality, bright, free and assertive; |
| b | being kind, careful, friendly; |
| c | being indispensable for the pupils; |
| d | being able to reveal the creative abilities of every pupil. |
SECTION IY
Writing
| Make a written summary of the scientific paper you have prepared for the publication in a scientific journal. | |
| Write an essay of 230-250 words. Reflect on the role of a scientific supervisor and his/her impact on postgraduate’s development, achievements and promotion. | |
| Study the following curriculum vitae (CV) carefully and fill in the form given: |
CURRICULUM VITAE
| Updated __________ | |
| Name: Last, First, Middle | ______________________________________________ |
| Date and Place of Birth | ______________________________________________ |
| Home Address/ Telephone | ______________________________________________ |
| Position/ Affiliation | ______________________________________________ |
| Office address/ Telephone | ______________________________________________ |
| Educational background (in reverse chronological order) |
| Dates | University/ Institute | Field of Study | Degree |
| Employment History (in reverse chronological order) |
| Dates | Employer | Address | Position |
| Teaching Experience__________________________________________________ |
| Other Professional Activities, Membership in Professional Associations ____________________________________________________________________ |
| Fields of Interests_____________________________________________________ |
| Academic Degrees and awards, Professional Recognition____________________ |
| Grants, Scholarships __________________________________________________ |
| Participation in Conferences and Seminars________________________________ |
| Major Publications (in chronological order)________________________________ |
| Language Proficiency__________________________________________________ |
| Native Language_______________________________________________________ |
| Foreign Languages. Rate your skills using Good, Fair, Poor |
| Language | Reading | Writing | Listening | Speaking |
| Signature_________________ |
UNIT 3
SECTION I
Language focus
SECTION II
Speaking
Dialogue 1
| Nick: | Hi, Mike. I haven’t seen you for ages. How are you? I have heard you have just returned from Germany. |
| Mike: | Hi, Nick. Really, I returned from Germany a few days ago. |
| Nick: | Where did you stay there? |
| Mike: | Well, you know I went there on a Students’ Exchange Programme. I spent 3 months at Wuppertal Higher Institution. This is an institution our department keeps close relations with. So every year a group of students goes there to take a course of information technologies, web design or some other subjects. |
| Nick: | Excuse me, what language did you use in class? |
| Mike | There were several groups in which teachers delivered lectures in English, but mostly it was German. I attended the classes where English was used. |
| Nick: | Did you have any problems with your English? |
| Mike: | At the beginning, yes, it was rather difficult but in a week or so I got used to it. Of course, there were cases when we had to ask for explanations but in general I was fine. |
| Nick: | Excuse me, how can one become a participant of a students’ exchange programme? |
| Mike: | Oh, it is a long story. First of all, you should do well in all your special subjects and besides you should be good at Germa Наши рекомендации |