Обстоятельственные придаточные предложения
(The Adverbial Clauses)
Обстоятельственные придаточные предложения выполняют в сложном предложении функцию различных обстоятельств. Они делятся по своему значению на обстоятельственные предложения времени,
места, образа действия, причины, цели, следствия, уступительные, степени и сравнения, условия.
4. Придаточные предложения времени(Adverbial Clauses of Time)
Придаточные предложения времени отвечают на вопросы when – когда? since when – с каких пор? how long – как долго?
Придаточные предложения времени соединяются с главным предложением союзами: when – когда; while – в то время как; before – перед тем как, до того как, перед; after – после того как; as soon as – как только; as – когда, в то время как, по мере того как; till, until – пока, до тех пор, пока не; as long as – пока, до тех пор пока; since – с тех пор как и др.
I saw many places of interest when I was in Moscow. – Я осмотрела много достопримечательностей, когда была в Москве.
As soon as I receive his cable, I shall give it to you. – Как только я получу его телеграмму, я дам ее тебе.
She came after I had left. – Она пришла после того, как я ушла.
Примечание: В придаточных предложениях времени будущее время не употребляется.
While you are working I shall be reading this article. – Пока Вы будете работать, я прочитаю эту статью.
5. Придаточные предложения условия(Adverbial Clauses of Condition)
Придаточные предложения условия обычно соединяются с главным предложением союзами if – если, unless – если не. В английском языке условные предложения подразделяются на три типа:
1 тип условных предложений выражает осуществимое условие, относящееся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени.
If it gels dark, we switch the light on. – Если становится темно, мы включаем свет.
2 тип составляют предложения, выражающие маловероятные условия, относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени. Эти предложения употребляются в сослагательном наклонении. В главном предложении употребляются вспомогательные глаголы should/would + + инфинитив смыслового глагола, в придаточном предложении употребляется форма сослагательного наклонения, совпадающая с Past Simple.
If I had time (now, tomorrow), I should go there. – Если бы у меня было время (сейчас, завтра), я бы пошла туда.
3 тип составляют предложения, выражающие неосуществимые предположения, относящиеся к прошедшему времени. В условных предложениях 3 типа глагол главного предложения стоит в форме
should (would) + Infinitive Perfect, а глагол условного придаточного предложения стоит в форме сослагательного наклонения, совпадающего с Past Perfect.
If you had listened to me carefully, you would not have asked me such questions. – Если бы Вы слушали меня внимательно, Вы бы не задавали мне таких вопросов.
TAPESCRIPT
INTRODUCTORY LESSON
Marie: Hi, everyone. Welcome to Thrillseekers. I’m Marie Gregg and this is Jack Roberts. We’re going to be your guides on our expedition from London to South Africa.
Jack: Hi! As you heard, my name’s Jack and, as - you can probably tell from my accent, I’m from South Africa. And this is Bessie, our trusty vehicle. She’s going to take us all the way down through Europe and Africa to Cape Town. Now we’re going to be together on the road for the next five weeks, so we need to get to know each other. Can I ask you all to introduce yourselves briefly to the group? Now, who would like to start? Yes?
Lulu: Hello, everybody. My name’s Lulu McNulty and I’m from Sydney, Australia. I'm a fashion designer. My father was born in South Africa. I’ve always wanted to go there, because he’s told me so much about the place. So I’m really looking forward to the trip.
Jack: Thanks, Lulu. And now the person next to Lulu.
Paola: Hi. I’m Paola, Paola Rossi. I’m an accountant. I work for a big chemical company. Oh, and I’m from Argentina - from Buenos Aires. At the moment I’m working in London. I’ve been here for about a year now. I like travelling but I like a bit of adventure, too. So that’s why I wanted to go on this trip.
Jack: Thank you, Paola and ... ?
Istvan: Hi. I’m Istvan Tisza. I’m from Hungary and I’m a student.
Marie: What are you studying, Istvan?
Istvan: I’m studying psychology at the University of Budapest. I wanted to come on this trip because I’d like to do something unusual. And also I'll have a chance to practise my English.
Jack: Thanks a lot, Istvan, and ...
UNIT 1. HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
Teacher: OK, listen up class. Today were going to learn what germs actually are. So let’s begin by clearing up one mistaken belief many people have. Germs are not all bad. No, indeed, germs are basically microbes and they can live in many places, such as in or on humans, animals or plants. While you might think that sounds disgusting, let me explain something: some germs actually help the human.
UNIT 2. BIOLOGY TODAY
Teacher: Well, today we’re going to talk about the micro-organisms known as protozoa. Now me word protozoa comes from the Greek and it literal means first animal. Of all the life forms in the world they have the largest population. Yes, Harry W hat do you want to say?
Harry: Erm, Miss, isn’t it true that protozoa are very important for maintaining the earth so it is suitable for other life forms to live on?
Teacher: Yes, indeed. Probably one of the most important ecological functions these tiny animals have is that they consume bacteria, which keeps them under control and enables us to have an environment in which we can survive. Right, what I’d like now is for somebody to give me a basic definition of this form of life. Yes, Emily, you tell us. Emily: I looked it up on the Internet, Miss, and I found out that they are one-celled forms. They're the smallest of all animals and can only be seen under a microscope. The reason they can be considered animal life is because they share features we connect with animals: they breathe, they reproduce and they move. And...
Keith: Can I butt in there? I found out more about what they look like. Well, they don’t have an inner or outer skeleton but apart from that their appearance varies. For example, an amoeba doesn’t have a fixed shape and it is very simple in its internal organisation. On the other hand, a paramecium has a fixed shape and a more complicated internal organisation.
Teacher: Good! Well done both of you! Let me add a bit more to that information. Firstly, although we said protozoa are helpful, there are also some which aren’t. What I mean is that some can be parasites and others can be the cause of certain diseases. When I -ay parasite, that means they feed off their host - the animal or human in which they are living A- far as what they eat is concerned, they can take in organisms such as bacteria and algae (a kind of water plant) or organic particles such as waste from animals or plants. Some types take in nutrient- through the cell mouth, others absorb nutrient- through their cell walls.
Let’s go on to look more closely at the different types of protozoa...
UNIT 3. LIFE ORIGIN
Historically, being immunised against diseases is a relatively new thing but that doesn't mean the idea hadn’t been thought of before. If we go as far back as 429 BC, the historian Thucydides noted that after a smallpox plague in Athens survivors did not become infected again. This was at a time before there was even recognition of such things as bacteria and viruses.
Nowadays, we take it for granted that we will be vaccinated and avoid diseases like polio, but how many of us actually stop to ask ourselves what is behind the injection we have? How does vaccination work?
Basically, it is the process by which a person is exposed to an agent so that his or her immune system develops against that agent. The immune system makes antibodies which fight against infection. Once the human immune system is exposed, that is, made open to a disease, it is able to act against any future infection. Vaccination exposes a person to an immunogen - something which helps develop immunity - in a controlled way by using a weak dose so he or she doesn't become ill while being immunised.
The good thing about a vaccination programme is that it can limit the spread of a disease among a population, reducing the risk for people who have not been vaccinated so we have something which is known as herd immunity. That means when the number of non-immune people has dropped to a certain level, the disease will disappear from the whole population. This is how nowadays we have achieved the elimination of many diseases.
UNIT 4. THE CELL
When we say something is written in our DNA what do we actually mean? What kind of alphabet are we suggesting? Well actually, it’s a very good description as the strands or lengths of DNA contain 3.2 billion letters of coding. That’s a lot of information. The nature of the information depends on the order of the base pairs along its length. Of course, we inherit this information from our parents. Not just hair colour or skin tone, sometimes the chances of getting certain diseases. That’s why DNA is so important for the future of health care. From our mothers we get mitochondrial DNA. and the male Y chromosome only comes from our fathers. Now this is interesting since DNA isn’t destroyed by time and because there is so much of it. we can often find it in animals that have been dead for thousands of years. Archaeologists for example, might find it in the teeth of ancient man, and since DNA is handed down from generation to generation it would be possible to find a living relative of someone who had been dead for four thousand years. Bringing things up to date, don’t forget that the police can use samples of DNA left it a crime scene to find criminals!
UNIT 5. THE VARIETY OF LIFE
Teacher: One of the most interesting animals was the Tasmanian tiger. First of all, it wasn’t a tiger, or any sort of cat.
Student 1: What was it?
Teacher: It was actually a dog. In fact, its scientific name means ‘dog with a wolf's head’.
Student 2: So, why was it called a tiger?
Teacher: It was called a tiger because it had stripes on its body. That's probably why the first Europeans who set foot in Tasmania killed it - they thought it was dangerous.
Student 1: Was it really dangerous?
Teacher: Not really no. It was a very shy animal, and it stayed away from humans.
Student 2:Is it extinct now?
Teacher: Well, we' re not sure about that. The last Tasmanian tiger died in captivity - that is, in a zoo - in l930 and the species was officially declared extinct in 1986 but people still claim they have seen them in the wilder parts of Tasmania.
UNIT 6. EVOLUTION
Charles Darwin was an English scientist who put forward a theory of evolution. He outlined this theory in his book The Origin of Species. He also wrote another book called The Descent of Man. In the second book he used his theory to suggest that human beings evolved from apes and monkeys. Many people disagreed with what he said. However, despite the fact that some of Darwin’s ideas have been disproved, his basic ideas are still accepted.
After travelling and collecting many specimens of animal and plant life, he returned to England in 1836. There he began to classify his findings, and the similarities between the fossil mammals Darwin collected and modern mammals led him to believe species change over time. However, he had to answer the question, ‘if evolution occurred, by what means did it do it?’ So began his studies, spread over twenty odd years which finally led Darwin to the conclusion that those who possessed advantageous variations, that is helpful differences, were more likely to survive and reproduce than those without these advantageous variations. In other words, the fittest would survive. He coined the term ‘natural selection to describe this process by which organisms with favourable variations survived and reproduced more offspring. He called an inherited variation which increased an organism’s chance of survival in a particular environment an ‘adaptation’. Over many generations, an adaptation would spread throughout an entire species and thus, according to Darwin, evolution by natural selection would happen.
UNIT 7. GENETICS
Student 1: What are you going to write about in your Biology report? I haven’t decided yet, but I might write about Gregor Mendel’s experiments, you know, the ones with the pea plants.
Student 2: Actually. I'm thinking of writing about modern genetics and how we can change genetic information. I'll probably write about genetic engineering. I think it’s fascinating. It’s incredible how scientists can change information in genes. It’s like something from a science fiction film.
Student 1: Yes it is. But just like in films, scientists sometimes create strange things in their laboratories.
Student 2: Oh? Like what?
Student 1: Well, I read that they have used genetic engineering to produce square watermelons. Isn’t that crazy?
Student 2: Square watermelons? Why would anyone want a square watermelon?
Student 1: Apparently, normal watermelons are difficult to store and transport because of their shape. These square ones can be easily put one on top of the other, so more can be transported at the same time. In this way, it costs less to transport them.
Student 2: That’s amazing. But it makes sense, doesn’t it? I mean, that’s what genetic engineering is all about - making life easier for us. I had no idea about those watermelons though. I was going to write about food crops, like wheat, and how' scientists can change them so that the wheat can survive in different weather conditions.
Student 1: Yes, that’s important. That means there’ll be more wheat for food. I think they also use genetic engineering to create plants that are used to make certain medicines. That’s a good idea.
Student 2: I agree. It’s a great idea, although of course there is quite a lot of public concern about genetic engineering that is carried out on food crops...
UNIT 8. CLONNING
At the beginning of the 1950s one of the players in the race to identify the structure of DNA was a woman - Rosalind Franklin. However, due to her early death - she died at the age of 37 and because she was a woman working at a time when women were not treated equally in the workplace, it is often argued that the history of science didn't give her the credit she deserved.
So what is it that she contributed? Well, she was talented and committed researcher and she developed particular skill in taking photos of crystals. Added to that, she was able to interpret ne photos better than anybody else. Using the technique known as X-ray crystallography she could map the atoms in a crystal. When she showed her photo of the DNA molecule to James Watson, he was very excited because it was the first time that the structure of DNA - its double-helix shape - could be seen. Moreover, identifying the structure of DNA would also help explain how it reproduced itself.
Even nowadays there is disagreement about how important Franklin’s contribution to learning the structure of DNA was but her genius cannot be denied. After the problems she had working on DNA she decided to move to Birkbeck College, perhaps to a friendlier climate, where she did work on the tobacco mosaic virus and the polio virus. Unfortunately, she died in 1958, thus ending a brilliant career.
UNIT 9. THE THEORY OF NOOSPHERE
Teacher: Many years ago - in fact, billions of years ago - uranium began to enter the Earth's crust.
Student 1: Where did it come from?
Teacher: It had been released from an exploding star, and floated around the universe. Uranium is the heaviest of all the naturally occurring elements. It has an atomic number of 92.
Student 2: Does that mean there are 92 protons in the atom’s nucleus?
Teacher: Yes, it does. That is a huge amount. Just to compare it to lighter elements, can anyone tell me how many protons there are in, for example, hydrogen or oxygen?
Student 1: There’s just one in hydrogen, and there are eight in oxygen.
Teacher: That’s right. Uranium is also radioactive. What does that mean?
Student 3: It means that it is an atom that can release huge amounts of energy
Teacher: Correct. We can use uranium - that is, nuclear power - to produce energy, such as electricity. But before this happens, the uranium must be mined and refined into very small pieces about the size of a piece of chewing gum. These pieces are then put into small tubes, and are used in nuclear reactors as fuel. Student 2: How much energy can it produce? Teacher: Well, because it contains more energy than any other element, a small amount - about a handful, in fact - can provide as much energy as 390 barrels of oil.
Student 3: It’s dangerous though, isn’t it?
Teacher: Yes, it can be extremely dangerous, and accidents have occurred in the past.
Student 3: Why is it used then?
Teacher: Because it is cleaner than other forms of energy that we use to produce the huge amounts of electricity that we need. At the moment, if we didn't have any nuclear power, an extra two billion tons of carbon dioxide would be poured into the atmosphere by othe forms of energy such as coal. There are alternative forms being developed through…
UNIT 10. ECOLOGY
Presenter: Good afternoon. Today we're considering how worried we really need to be about climate change. In particular, how worried we should be about plant life and the future of animals on this earth. Sarah’s report gives us some reasons to be optimistic and some reasons to really worry. Sarah.
Sarah: Hello there. Yes, it’s true that climatic change does affect animal and plant life but not always to the point of disaster. Many animals and plants are actually very adaptable - you know, able to change according to conditions. Of course, historically ice ages and droughts - a severe lack of water - have completely destroyed certain types of animal and plant life, but many managed to survive extreme, long-term climate change by adapting.
Now, many biologists and ecologists believe the Earth today may again be in the middle of climate change because over the last century many studies have shown rising global temperatures, on average about half a degree centigrade, and although this may seem very little, it is actually happening much faster than before and it can affect life enormously.
Climate change leads some plants and animals to find new homes, while others that are not so lucky7 become extinct. Mountains give a good example of this. A hotter climate means trees and plants can grow higher up mountains. In the Alps, it’s been observed that every decade sees plants moving up about four metres. And how does this influence animal life? Well, unfortunately7, some animals, which have become highly specialised in order to live on mountain tops, have no escape if conditions change. They simply cannot survive in warm weather.
So let’s go over to Dr Bernard in Switzerland who will fill us in with more details...
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4. Tom Hutchinson. Life Lines. Oxford University Press, 2004.
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6. Макаревская Е.В. English for Students of Biology: Пособие по английскому языку для студентов-биологов / Е.В. Макаревская - Минск: Изд-во «Вышэйшая школа», 1989.
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