President of the United States
US Political System
VOCABULARY:
The constitution, the Supreme law, the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments)
The legislative, the executive, the judicial branches of power
The system of checks and balances
Legislature
Bicameral legislature, the House of Representatives/ the House/ the Lower chamber
The Senate/ the Upper House
division of power/ labour between the two houses
nonvoting members of Congress
term of office, to serve a two-year term, to resign, resignation
to hold office, to be removed from office, public officer, the White House officer
proposed legislation, a bill; to put a measure before the House, to pass a bill
enactment of the bill, to pass both houses
to brake/ delay/ table/ kilt a bill
to talk on the floor, to reach the floor (about s bill), to be on the floor
majority party, majority leader, floor leader, party caucus
tie vote, if the vote is likely to be close, roll call
to keep the record, Congressional record
with the consent of the Senate, a two-thirds majority vote
to initiate impeachment,
to levy taxes, to regulate interstate and foreign commerce
lobby, to lobby for a proposal, lobbyists
filibuster
The Executive
to vest power in smb., to vest smb. with power
the chief executive, Commander-in-chief of the US Aimed Forces
to appoint Supreme Court and federal judges, to approve the top civil and military officers,
to declare martial law, to grant pardons and reprieves
to issue executive orders, an executive agreement
negotiation and ratification of international treaties
to propose and veto legislation, a vetoed bill, to override a presidential veto
to face impeachment charges, Watergate affair
to start an impeachment trial, to acquit/ to pass a verdict of guilty
Vice-President
Secretary of State, the State Department
Secretary of Defense, the Defense department
Attorney General, the Department of Justice
Public Opinion and Presidency
to conduct/ to take an opinion poll
io measure public opinion
polling organization, pollster; respondent
the technique of random sampling
results/findings of opinion polls; polls indications
approval/popularity rating
to be ahead/ to ride high in opinion polls, a front runner
to be behind/ to trail behind in opinion polls
to run neck and neck, level pegging
Impeachment
Impeachment, is often by mistake, taken to mean only the removal from office of an accused public official. In fact, it is a proceeding by a legislature for the removal from office of a public official charged with misconduct in office. Impeachment comprises both the act of formulating the accusation and the resulting trial of the charges. An impeachment trial may result either in an acquittal or in a verdict of guilty. In the latter case the impeached official is removed from office;
The U.S. Constitution, in Article I, Section 3, provides for the impeachment of federal public officials and gives explicit directions for conducting impeachments The House of Representatives initiates impeachment proceedings by resolution and appoints a number of its members to act as managers in prosecuting the impeachment before the Senate, which serves as a court to try the official. The vice president, who presides over the Senate, also presides at impeachment trials, except in the case of £n impeachment of the president, when the chief justice of the U.S. presides. A two-thirds majority vote of the senators present at an impeachment trial is necessary to secure conviction. Most impeachment proceedings in U.S. history have involved federal judges, and acquittals have been more numerous than convictions. In 1868 President Andrew Johnson was impeached on charges of defying the authority of Congress and of violating a federal law, the recently enacted Tenure of Office Act. Johnson was acquitted, in 1974, three articles of impeachment against President Richard M. Nixon were voted by the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives. The president was charged with obstructing justice, abusing his constitutional authority, and failing to obey the committee's subpoenas. Nixon resigned, and the House accepted the committee report without further action. Impeachment procedure in the states is modeled on that of the federal Constitution and has been infrequently invoked.
In England, the House of Lords exercised the exclusive right of impeachment of public officials from the earliest days of Parliament until 1376. in that year the House of Commons began to initiate by resolution impeachment proceedings that were then tried by the House of Lords. Among notable instances of impeachment in English history was that involving the colonial administrator Warren Hastings in 1788. In recent years in England impeachment has rarely been invoked.
ELECTIONS
VOCABULARY:
1. Election to (Parliament), to elect sb.to.../ for a term of (5 years)
general, local, parliamentary, congressional, presidential, mid-term elections
primary election, primaries
run-off election, first/ second round
by-election
to call / hold an election
constituency, electoral district; one-member constituency
marginal constituency/ safe seat (constituency)
swing voter/ state
voting systems, simple majority/ first-past-the-post; proportional representation
2. electron campaign; to run, launch, organize a campaign; campaign trail
the run-up to an election
a bid for presidency/ a presidential bid
to stand for election/ to run for election (Am.E)
to put forward a candidate, to nominate a candidate (for presidency)
to win/ get the nomination; a presidential nominee
to run in a close race
party's platform, party's manifesto
canvassing
3. to win/ lose an election; to win by a narrow/ huge margin; landslide
to gain or win/ lose seats
to claim victory/ to concede or admit defeat
to get one's candidate elected; to return a candidate to Parliament
incumbent, to get re-elected/ to receive a fresh mandate
to oust/ throw out of office
to withdraw one's candidacy
4. to be entitled to vote, the right to vote, universal suffrage
to vote Labour, Conservative, etc.
educational, residential, property, age qualification
to abstain/ stay away from the polls
popular/ electoral vote; voters' electors, electoral college
voting is by secret ballot
5. polling day, to go to the polls, electorate
to cast a vote/ a ballot; to poll for the Labour candidate
to count the votes, to declare the poll, to declare the early returns
polling station/ booth; ballot-box; ballot paper, spoiled/ invalid ballot
returning officer, poll watcher
heavy/ light poll; voter turnout, heavy/ light or poor turnout
to vote by proxy/ proxy voting; postal/ absentee voting
exit poll
6. electoral fraud/ electoral irregularities; to fix/ rig an election
vote-rigging; gerrymandering
a close/ hotly contested election
smear campaign, mudslinging, digging for dirt
US Electoral System
On November 7, 2000, millions of American citizens went to polling places all over the country to select the next president of the United States.
The date for the election of the president, always the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November every fourth year, was fixed by the U.S. Congress in 1845. Although elections are held every year — for governors, for national lawmakers, and for state, county, and local officials — choosing a chief executive is by far one of the most important processes in representative government in the United States.
Election of a new president climaxes a grueling campaign, one of the longest and most arduous in the democratic world, for the position of chief of state. Hopefuls seeking nomination by the Republican and Democratic parties, the two major political parties in the United States, often launch their drives as much as two years before voting day arrives. They start their efforts by creating organizations throughout the country in as many states as they can. These organizations, staffed by a few paid professionals but mostly by volunteers, go to work with him to publicize their candidate's name and views and to raise as much money as possible. Campaigns are expensive-Television and radio time must be purchased at ever-rising rates, literature printed and mailed, premises rented, travel costs paid, and banners, buttons, bunting and other items ordered.
How do Americans choose the final nominees for the two major parties from the list of candidates who declare their intentions?
In earlier years, the parties' members in the Senate and House of Representatives, the country's legislative bodies that compose the Congress, met behind closed doors and made the selections. But because that system smacked of elitism, the method of nominating by national conventions was created.
The first such nationwide conclave by a political party was held in 1831, and within a few years it was followed by others. Conventions — noisy, colorful, quadrennial meetings — are now a fixed U.S. institution. Delegates from across the nation converge on the convention city to decide on their standard-bearer.
Until the early 1900s, powerful political leaders were mainly responsible for the choice of a candidate by the conventions. The decisions were made in the notorious "smoke-filled rooms" chambers in which cigar- and pipe-smoking party bosses were the key factors in the ultimate decision. The delegates to the conventions, who were chosen by the party heads themselves, simply voted as they were instructed.
Political reform movements early in the century diluted considerably the power or the party bosses, thus making the process of selecting a candidate more democratic. In 1906, Wisconsin became the first state to enact legislation requiring that delegates to the national conventions be chosen by popular vote in a special kind of election called a "primary." Other states quickly passed similar laws. And so today, the road to the nomination leads through a lengthy string of these primary elections that begin in the snow and sleet of February and do not end until close to convention time in the heat of midsummer.
Some states hold "party caucuses" instead of primaries. Those ate neighborhood meetings all across the state at which enrolled party members vote their preferences. The principle, however, in both primaries and caucuses is the same — democratic choice, by the people, of the persons who will head their party's ticket. Candidates are out on the caucus and primary trail early in election year, spending significant sums and exerting considerable effort to win as many delegates into their camps as possible. It is a rugged task: They crisscross the nation day after day and week after week, often visiting three or more cities in a single day. They stand at factory gates at dawn in all kinds of weather greeting workers. They go to shopping malts, railroad stations, meeting halls, school auditoriums — everywhere their advisers think they can convince voters. They are at the job 16 or more hours a day, eating on the run, sleeping when they can.
The system of picking delegates to the conventions is confusing because states do not follow a uniform procedure. Some hold open primaries in which registered voters of any political party can cast ballots for any candidate, or even for delegates who do not back a particular aspirant. Other states have closed primaries, elections in which only voters who have previously registered their affiliations with a party are entitled to have their say. Moreover, some primaries use proportional systems, while others are "winner-take-all." In the former, delegates are selected according to the portion of the vote each candidate wins, while in the latter all of the state's delegates go to the candidate capturing a majority vote.
As these pre-election elections and caucuses go on, candidates and their supporters closely watch two key dates, each of which can foretell what lies ahead. One caucus is early in February, it is significant because it is the country's first test of a candidate's strength in any state. The second major signpost is the first state primary eight days later, always in New Hampshire, a north-eastern state of some 1.1 million that borders Canada,
Candidates who do poorly here have second thoughts about continuing their quests, and many drop out. In 1968, for example, Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota bested President Lyndon Johnson in the Democratic primary by unexpectedly polling a large percentage of the New Hampshire votes. By the end of that March, Johnson announced he would not seek re-election. His weak showing in the snows of New Hampshire, analysts pointed out, was a major contributing factor in his decision. The hard months of primary and caucus campaigning culminate in the political conventions, in 2000, the Republicans held theirs from July, 29 to August, 2 in Philadelphia; the Democrats met in Los Angeles from August 14 to 17.
These assemblages are surely among the most colorful, not to mention noisy and brassy, events staged in America. The halls and arenas where they are held are awash in red, white, and blue bunting. American flags, balloons, and banners. Delegates wear armbands and hats proclaiming their affiliations. The major television networks provide on-the-spot coverage, which is beamed all over the world News services and magazine sent their best journalists to report extensively on the proceedings. Thus all Americans have an opportunity to watch their democracy choose its own leaders.
Conventions always open with a keynote address, generally delivered by the party's most crowd-rousing orator. Nomination of the presidential and vice presidential candidates always comes on the third day of the convention. At the conclusion of the balloting, when the nominee has been named, thousands of balloons cascade from the ceiling and bedlam reigns. Only incessant gavel-pounding by the chairperson quiets the delegates enough to hear true acceptance speech. With the nominee, his or her running mate, and their spouses waving and smiling from the rostrum, the convention finally comes to a close.
Independent and third-party candidates may also make a run for the White House. Such candidates must have strong local organizations of volunteers who gather the necessary number of petition signatures for the candidate to gain access to the ballot in each state. The required number of signatures varies from state to state, from 100,000 signatures in a
large state like California to 1,000 in smaller states like Vermont.
After the close of the Republican and Democratic national conventions, the campaign for
election begins in earnest. Once again the candidates travel throughout the nation,
explaining their stands on key issues. They are careful to concentrate on states that their
strategists believe might go either way, spending less precious time and money in those
they believe they cannot win and the ones they definitely expect to carry.
America's mass media are a potent though not necessarily determining factor in the
outcome of a presidential election. The power of television in the election process was
recognized for the first time in 1960, when the young, handsome John F. Kennedy
defeated Richard M. Nixon in a close race. "Television loved Kennedy," wrote David
Halberstam, a noted American journalist. "He and the camera were made for each other;
he was its first great political superstar." Halberstam stated flatly: "In no way could he
(Kennedy) have been elected president without television."
In 1984, Walter Mondale, the Democratic candidate, admitted he lost to Republican
Ronald Reagan because "I never warmed up to television, and television never warmed
up to me." On the other hand, Reagan was a masterful performer on the home screen,
communicating well and making good use of "sound bites" — short, pithy phrases and
quips.
The 1992 election has seen public opinion pollsters more active than ever in efforts to forecast the election results. Polls are hardly new. Back in 1828. a Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, newspaper took a sampling of readers in the neighboring state of Delaware and correctly predicted that Andrew Jackson would defeat John Quincy Adams. Subsequently, some polls were accurate while others failed dismally to forecast outcomes.
But predicting the result of an election has limited value. "It is largely з matter of satisfying curiosity," according to professor Nelson W. Polsby of the University of California at Berkeley. "The bare prediction of the outcome," he writes in his book Presidential Elections, "even if reasonably correct, tells us little about how the result came to occur." In other words, polls forecasting winners can tell us what will or might happen, but not why. Of more practical use to candidates are the polls taken while campaigns are under way. Through these, party leaders can learn if the ticket is doing well or poorly with older or younger voters, with men or women, with members of all economic groups, or with other segments of the population. The information helps strategists fine-tune their campaigns to strengthen weak areas.
For years, a number of national organizations have urged radio and television networks to end the practice of exit polling (asking citizens how they voted as they leave the voting site) On the basis of key samplings on the East Coast, winners can be projected before the voting ends in the western United States, three hours later. Voters who might change the outcome may be discouraged from casting ballots because they feel the game is already over.
In 1980, the National Broadcasting Company announced the election of Ronald Reagan less than 15 minutes after the polls closed in the East; West Coast voters still had plenty of time left to cast ballots, while it was just midafternoon in Hawaii. Is it fair, critics ask, to predict a winner before every citizen has a chance to vote?
With the closing of the polls, the election process is ended — but only temporarily. There is yet another official step. U.S. presidents are not elected directly by popular vote but by an indirect method centering on the Electoral College. This is not an institution of higher learning but a group of men and women who actually cast the determining ballots. This indirect method of selecting a leader was provided for in Article II, Section 1, of the U.S. Constitution. Despite changes that have evolved as the country itself grew and changed, the principle is essentially faithful to that enunciated by the country's founders. Each state names a number of electors equal to its total number of senators and representatives in Congress. The candidate receiving the greatest number of votes in a state wins all of its electors; the loser gets none. The candidate receiving the greatest number of electoral votes wins the presidency.
On the Monday following the second Wednesday in December, a date set by law, the ejectors meet in their state capitals to vote. Ballots are sealed and sent to the president of the United States Senate (who is also the vice president of the United States) and the head of the General Services Administration. On January 6 of the following year, the ballots are opened before a joint session of Congress, and the new president and vice president are announced.
By then, of course, the world has known who they are for weeks; the balloting and the ceremony are merely formalities. Moreover, the electors do not have any discretion in voting Chosen by their political parties, they are once again pledged to vote for their party's choice. The Electoral College, however, makes the results official. The long road has been traveled, the prize won, and the democratic process has worked.
Дуэль президентов США
US Political System
VOCABULARY:
The constitution, the Supreme law, the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments)
The legislative, the executive, the judicial branches of power
The system of checks and balances
Legislature
Bicameral legislature, the House of Representatives/ the House/ the Lower chamber
The Senate/ the Upper House
division of power/ labour between the two houses
nonvoting members of Congress
term of office, to serve a two-year term, to resign, resignation
to hold office, to be removed from office, public officer, the White House officer
proposed legislation, a bill; to put a measure before the House, to pass a bill
enactment of the bill, to pass both houses
to brake/ delay/ table/ kilt a bill
to talk on the floor, to reach the floor (about s bill), to be on the floor
majority party, majority leader, floor leader, party caucus
tie vote, if the vote is likely to be close, roll call
to keep the record, Congressional record
with the consent of the Senate, a two-thirds majority vote
to initiate impeachment,
to levy taxes, to regulate interstate and foreign commerce
lobby, to lobby for a proposal, lobbyists
filibuster
The Executive
to vest power in smb., to vest smb. with power
the chief executive, Commander-in-chief of the US Aimed Forces
to appoint Supreme Court and federal judges, to approve the top civil and military officers,
to declare martial law, to grant pardons and reprieves
to issue executive orders, an executive agreement
negotiation and ratification of international treaties
to propose and veto legislation, a vetoed bill, to override a presidential veto
to face impeachment charges, Watergate affair
to start an impeachment trial, to acquit/ to pass a verdict of guilty
Vice-President
Secretary of State, the State Department
Secretary of Defense, the Defense department
Attorney General, the Department of Justice
President of the United States
President of the United States, chief executive officer of the federal government, leader of the executive branch, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president has the power to make treaties with other nations, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. The president also appoints, with Senate consent, diplomatic representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials. The president and vice president are the only government officials in the United States elected by and representing the entire nation Although the president shares power with Congress and the judiciary, he or she is the most powerful and important officeholder in the country. The president has no vote in Congress but is the single largest source of legislative proposals that become law. As the principal foreign policy maker, the president of the United States has become the world's most important leader in international affairs. The Constitution of the United States specifies a four-year presidential term. It originally said nothing about how many terms a president could serve. But the precedent established by George Washington limited his successors to two terms Succession by a vice president after a president's death provided the opportunity to serve more than eight years without strictly violating the two-term rule.
The Constitution requires presidents to be natural-born citizens of the United States who are at least 35 years of age and have resided in the United States for 14 years.
In the more than two centuries since the presidency was established, the responsibilities and powers of the office have grown to a point where they almost exceed the capacity of any one individual to manage them. The Constitution requires the president to discharge the duties of the office and preserve,
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. The president is also responsible
for the execution of the laws of the United States. In domestic affairs, this means anything
from implementing economic, social, and regulatory measures passed by Congress to
acting as commander in chief to quell disorder or suppress insurrection.
Presidents shape the country's judicial affairs by appointing federal judges. They influence
the country's domestic, economic, political, and social life by proposing legislation, calling
Congress into special session, and vetoing laws passed by Congress that they consider
destructive to the national well-being.
As commander in chief of the military, the president is also empowered to repel foreign
invasion and to fight ware overseas. In times of overwhelming public danger, the president
can declare martial law, when the courts are not open or cannot function freely.
The Constitution also gives the president the power to grant pardons and reprieves in
criminal cases. This power does not require congressional approval, but it cannot be used
in cases of impeachment.
The president proposes much of the legislation that Congress approves. The president's
power to veto (reject) legislation also serves as a strong influence on the legislative
process. Because it takes a two-thirds vote of both the House and tilts Senate to override a
presidential veto, Congress often modifies pending legislation to suit the president's
preferences. Aside from the role in proposing and vetoing laws, the president exercises
important legislative authority by issuing executive orders that have the force of law.
* Fill in the gaps:
1. _____is home to both the Senate and House of Representatives as well as various
committee and hearing rooms and an art gallery.
2. _____arose because only a very few individual rights were specified in the original main
body of the constitution.
3. _____ in the west wing of the White House is tailed the heart of the American
presidency.
4. _____ has become the established political symbol for the Democratic Party, although it
has never been officially adopted.
5. Any aircraft used to carry the president is referred to as ______.
6. _______lasts two years (or sessions) and begins at noon on 3 January of odd-numbered
Years
7. As well as drafting and implementing laws Congress also has the power to _____
federal officials including the president and vice president.
8. _______is the traditional nickname for the Republican Party widely used in American
political reporting.
9. The vice president serves as ______over the Senate although he does not serve on any
committees and is restricted to voting only in the event of .