Ex. 2. Name some words and phrases you know related to the problem under discussion.

Ex. 3. Guess the meaning of the following words and word combinations:

role-type, role conflict, desktop administrator, to require leadership, to be given limited resources, consensus, charismatic leader, to step into a role, source of stress, to balance expectations.

Ex. 4. Give your own definitions of 'public administration personnel', 'role-types' and 'role conflicts'.

Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:

1) Each employee in an organization performs a definite role. What is a role? Can an organization be viewed as a system of roles? Why?

2) An organization is viewed as a hierarchy, isn't it? Who is at the top of it? Who is at the bottom and in the middle of it?

3) What is the most general description of a bureaucrat?

4) What is a top-level administrator?

5) What is a civil servant?

C. Reading

Ex. 1. Read the text for general information to complete the following statements:

1) The text deals with the problem of …

2) The text views a public organization as a system of specific roles, role-types, the most common of which are …

3) The role of a policy entrepreneur requires …

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PERSONNEL:

ROLE-TYPES, ROLE CONFLICTS, ROLE OVERLOADS

Large organizations employ many individuals. Charismatic leaders, caring supervisors, innovative program directors, and numerous street-level employees lend individuality to the collective and character to the whole organization. One should also remember that higher moral and ethical standards are expected of public employees than of private employees, and that public managers work within very strict limits of legislation, executive orders, and regulations surrounding government. But unique contributions of individuals do not obscure their general patterns of behavior, or roles.

A role is a predictable set of expectations and behaviors associated with an office or position. Like an actor assigned a part, cabinet secretaries, police officers, and policy analysts step into roles that are already largely defined.

A person usually performs several roles and it may become a source of stress and overload. Role overload is more than just too much work, or overwork. Role overload exists when the demands of various roles overwhelm an individual’s ability to balance expectations, when the demands of one role make it difficult to fulfill the demands of others. The lawyer who must cancel an appointment to care for a sick child or the professor who neglects his students to fulfill administrative obligations is experiencing a role conflict.

Viewing organization as a system of roles helps to identify rights and obligations of each employee. Roles provide the consistency that holds an organization together. An organization that falls apart when individuals leave has not built an adequate structure of roles.

Although public organizations contain many specific roles, five role-types– the political executive, desktop administrator, professional, street-level bureaucrat, and policy entrepreneur – are the most common.

Political executives

Political executives (the secretary of a State Department, the city manager, or the county administrator) occupy the top of public organizations. Although their jobs and responsibilities are different, they all perform the functions of a political aide, policy maker, and top administrator.

In most cases, political executives are political appointees – elected officials give them their jobs. That is why, their position, their tenure, and their influence while in office derive from the authority of elected officials. The official who wins the election most commonly appoints loyal supporters. They are advisors for selected officials.

Elected officials cannot do everything. They can do little more than point the general direction and scrutinize the final result. That is why political executives appointed by them are also policy makers. The political executive initiates, shapes, promotes, and oversees policy changes. They may also have responsibility for major decisions. The ultimate authority, however, rests with the elected official.

Political executives are also top-level administrators. It is a difficult role. Public executives are legally responsible for implementing policy They must cut through the red tape, resistance of change, intra-organizational conflict to assure that the public is served well.. Those political executives who fail to reach down and get the support and enthusiasm of their agency personnel will effect little change in policy. But if they completely disregard the preferences, knowledge, and experience of their agencies, stalemate ensues. If they uncritically adopt the views of their elected officials or their agencies, they may lose influence with elected officials.

Desktop administrators

Desktop administrators are career civil servants down the hierarchy a few steps from political executives. They are middle managers and closely fit the general description of a bureaucrat. Whether a social worker supervisor or the director of a major government program, the desktop administrator spends days filled with memoranda and meetings.

The desktop administrators are torn between the promises and practicality of governing. Desk administrators guide policy intentions into policy actions that actually change, for better or worse, people’s life.

If there is, for example, a public and political consensus that the government should assist poor blind people, the definition worked out by a desktop administrator to answer the question who is poor and who is blind, has a dramatic influence to the nature of the program.

Desktop administrators differ fundamentally from political executives in that most of them are career civil servants. After a short probation period, most earn job tenure, and usually are not fired. Tenure insulates the civil service from direct political interference in the day-to-day working of government. Job tenure protects civil servants from losing their jobs, but they may be reassigned to less important jobs of equal rank if they lose favor with political executives.

Professionals

Professionals make up the third major role-type in public organizations. The original meaning of the term profession was a ceremonial vow made when joining a religious community. This vow followed years of training and some certification that the acquired knowledge and appropriate norms of behavior justified an individual’s initiation.

Modern professionals receive standard specific training that ends with certification. They also learn values and norms of behavior.

Increasingly the work of public organizations depends on professionals and more and more professionals are involved in public administration. The work of professionals involves applying their general knowledge to the specific case and requires considerable autonomy and flexibility.

An important difference between professional and non-professional work is who evaluates performance. Nonprofessionals are evaluated by their immediate supervisors. Professionals assert their independence from supervisors. Their work is evaluated by peer review of their colleagues and that has flaws: fellow professionals are sometimes more willing to overlook the mistakes of colleagues for different reasons.

Street-level bureaucrats

Street-level bureaucrats (social workers, police officers, public school teachers, public health nurses, job and drug-counselors, etc.) are at the bottom or near the bottom of public organizations.

Their authority does not come from rank, since they are at the bottom of hierarchy, but from the discretionary nature of their work. They deal with people and people are complex and unpredictable, they are not the same and require individual attention. A common complaint about public bureaucrats is that they treat everyone like a number; they ignore unique problems and circumstances. But there are only general guidelines how to deal with people (an abusive parent, an arrested, poor, old or sick person), and it is impossible to write better guidelines to make everyone happy. Street-level administrator must use judgment to apply rules and laws to unique situations, and judgment requires discretion.

Given limited resources, public organizations want fewer, not more clients, and this is an important difference between public and private organizations, which attract more clients to earn more profit. And dependence of clients on street-level bureaucrats often create conflicts.

Street-level bureaucrats work in situations that defy direct supervision. Even when supervisors are nearby, much work with clients is done privately. Most paperwork and computerized information systems attempt to control street-level bureaucrats, who in turn become skilled in filling out forms to satisfy supervisors while maintaining their own autonomy.

Street-level bureaucrats are also policy-makers. They often decide what policies to implement, their beliefs can affect their work with clients, they may interpret the policy to benefit clients and vice versa, and thus they may change the policy while implementing it.

Policy entrepreneurs

The policy entrepreneur is generally considered to be the charismatic person at the top, though they can exist at all levels of an organization. They are strongly committed to specific programs and are strong managers. They are skilled in gathering support and guiding an idea into reality. The role requires conceptual leadership, strategic planning, and political activism. This role is both necessary and dangerous. They take risks and push limits, which is necessary for a dynamic government, but they also bend rules and sometimes lead policy astray.

Ex. 2. Read the text again for understanding its main points and answer the 10 "What"-questions given below:

1) What is a role? What is a role-type? What is role overload?

2) What helps to identify rights and obligations of each employee?

3) What may become a source of stress and overload?

4) What are the most common five role-types in public organizations?

5) What do political appointees do? What do elected officials do?

6) What are desktop administrators?

7) What is the third major role-type in public organisations?

8) What is the work of street-level bureaucrats?

9) What is an important difference between public and private organisations?

10) What do policy entrepreneurs do?

Ex. 3. Now read the text for detailed information to complete the following sentences:

1) Large organisations employ many individuals: charismatic …, caring …, innovative …, and numerous … who lend individuality to … .

2) Cabinet secretaries and policy analysts like actors step … that are already largely defined.

3) … exists when the demand of various roles … an individual's ability to balance expectations.

4) The lawyer who must … to care for a sick child is experiencing a … .

5) The most common five role-types are …, …, …, …, and … .

6) … occupy the top of public organisations; in most cases they are … .

7) … have responsibility for major decisions; however, the ultimate authority rests with … .

8) … protects civil servants from losing their jobs.

9) The work of professionals requires … and … .

10) Street-level bureaucrats often decide what policies to implement, their … can … their work with … .

Ex. 4. Answer the following 'Why'-questions:

1) Why can employees experience role overloads or role conflicts?

2) What holds an organisation together? Why?

3) Why are political executives called political appointees? What are their functions?

4) Why are desktop administrators said to fit the general description of a bureaucrat?

5) Desktop administrators are mostly career civil servants, aren’t they? Why?

6) Why does the work of professionals require considerable autonomy and flexibility?

7) Does the authority of street-level bureaucrats come from rank or nature of their work? Why?

8) Why does dependence of clients on street-level bureaucrats often create conflicts?

9) Why is the role of policy entrepreneurs both necessary and dangerous? What risks do they take? What limits do they push?

10) What is meant under “leading policy astray”? Why?

D. Post-reading Exercises

Language Study

Ex. 1. Match the words to their definitions:

1) identify 2) overwhelm 3) lend 4) leader 5) oversee 6) probation 7) justice 8) complaint 9) obscure 10) belief 11) affect, v 12) tenure, n 13) entrepreneur

a) the right, state, or period of holding something, as an office or property; b) the principle of moral or ideal rightness; c) to recognize similarity or to establish as the same or similar; d) to allow the temporary use or possession of something with the understanding that it is to be returned; e) to overcome completely, to make helpless; f) someone who goes ahead so as to show the way; g) an expression of pain, dissatisfaction, a cause or reason for complaining; h) something that is trusted; i) a period used to test the qualification and character of a new employee; j) not clear, faint, remote; k) to move emotionally, to feel sad, to bring about a change in; l) to supervise workers, to direct; m) a person who managers a business venture.

Ex. 2. Give synonyms to the words given below or briefly explain their meaning:

1) Viewing an organisation as a system of roles helps to identify rights and obligations of each employee.

2) Role overload exists when the demands of various roles overwhelm an individual’s ability to balance expectation.

3) The political executive initiates, shapes, promotes and oversees policy changes.

4) After a short probation period most desktop administrators earn job tenure and usually are not fired.

5) A common complaint about public bureaucrats is that they treat everyone like a number.

6) Street-level bureaucrats often decide what policies to implement, their beliefs can affect their work with clients.

7) The role of the policy entrepreneur requires conceptual leadership.

8) Numerous street-level employees lend individuality to the collective, but these unique contributions should not obscure the patterns of behaviour across individuals, or roles.

Ex. 3. Insert prepositions where necessary:

1) Street-level employees are … the bottom … public organisations. Nevertheless they lend individuality … the collective and character … the whole organisation.

2) Policy analysts, like actors step … roles that are already largely defined.

3) Political executives occupy … the top of public organisations.

4) Cutting … the red tape public executives are legally responsible … implementing policy.

5) Desktop administrators are middle managers and closely fit … the general description of a bureaucrat.

6) Desktop administrators differ fundamentally … political executives … that most of them are career civil servants.

7) A common complaint … public bureaucrats is that they dealing … people treat everyone like a number.

8) Street-level administrators must use judgment to apply … rules and laws … unique situations.

Ex.4. What is the English for:

А 1) отождествлять с … 2) спрос на … 3) назначать (на должность) 4) наблюдать, надзирать 5) поддержка, помощь 6) мешать, быть помехой 7) оправдывать 8) гибкий 9) жалоба 10) притворяться, делать вид 11) затемнять, скрывать, делать неясным

B 1) определять права и обязанность каждого сотрудника 2) источник стресса и перегрузки 3) находиться на вершине иерархии 4) противостоять бюрократическим проволочкам 5) испытательный срок 6) срок пребывания в должности 7) работа требует гибкости 8) не принимать во внимание конкретные проблемы и обстоятельства 9) применять закон к конкретной ситуации 10) затрагивать (влиять на) работу 11) подвергать воздействию (давлению), наносить вред (ущерб)

Pre-discussion

Ex. 1. Retell the text finishing the following sentences and adding 4-5 phrases of your own:

1) The text under discussion draws our attention to …

2) There are five most common role types in public organizations. They are…

3) Political executives are political appointees, that's why …

4) Desktop administrators closely fit the general description of a bureaucrat, they differ fundamentally from …

5) Street-level bureaucrats are at the bottom of public organizations and …

Ex. 2. Translate into English:

1) Рассмотрение организации как системы ролей поможет определить права и обязанности каждого отдельного сотрудника.

2) Выполнение сотрудником нескольких ролей в организации может явиться источником стресса и перенапряжения.

3) Профессор, уделяющий меньше внимания своим студентам из-за исполнения административных обязанностей, переживает ролевой конфликт.

4) Главное различие между государственными и частными организациями заключается в том, что государственные организации, будучи ограниченными в средствах, не заинтересованы в обширной клиентуре, в то время как частные стараются привлечь как можно больше клиентов для получения большей прибыли.

5) Как правило, работа, предполагающая общение с людьми, является самой сложной, потому что люди непредсказуемы, непохожи между собой и потому требуют индивидуального подхода.

Ex. 3. Render into English:

Два столетия индустриального типа производства показали ограниченность и опасность производственного, или, как чаще называют, технократического подхода к организации общественной жизни и, естественно, к государственному управлению. Именно под влиянием этого подхода глубоко гуманистические идеи Возрождения и Просвещения, взрастившие нашу цивилизацию, были отодвинуты в сторону. Человек обычно воспринимался лишь в двух ипостасях: как производитель и как потребитель, с применением к нему одного – экономического – критерия оценки развития. Фактически в системе таких координат со времен Тейлора развивалась и наука управления производством, многие постулаты которой позднее были взяты и восприняты теорией государственного управления. Положение, складывающееся на грани тысячелетий, требует конкретного изменения всей философии и методологии государственного управления. Во главу угла должен быть поставлен человек, государственное управление призвано приобрести подлинно гуманистическую окраску. Надо искать нетрадиционные формы взаимосвязей между людьми, людей с природой, со своим прошлым и будущим. А это возможно при широкой гуманизации государственного управления, при внимательном учете философских, социологических, психологических, правовых, педагогических знаний.

(Князев С.Н., 2002: 38)

E. Additional Reading

CLASSIFICATION, CADRES AND GRADES

Almost all countries have some system of service classification. While the system may be simple or elaborate, it is essential for organizing the civil service and establishing a salary plan.

Classification systems broadly follow two models. One may be described as a position classification system, where the starting point is the position required and its duties, responsibilities and qualifications. All comparable positions are graded at the same level with the emphasis on equal pay for equal work. This system does not have a career structure for automatic upward mobility, although people move to higher responsibility and higher-paying positions if they meet the qualification requirements of the new assignments.

The second model is known as a rank system, where the emphasis is on a career structure and personal status. The cadre comprises a series of posts that have certain functional features in common (for example, civil administration, agriculture service, tax administration, customs, foreign affairs, and police). The cadre is divided into several grades, with each grade assigned a salary. Promotion to the next higher grade may depend on seniority alone or on the seniority-cum-merit principle.

Among developing countries at present, the rank system is more prevalent than the position classification system. But the two systems are not mutually exclusive.

(From Rethinking Public Administration: Overview: pp. 72)

F. Discussion

Ex. 1. Speak on the most common role-types in public organizations.

Ex.2. Express your attitude to the following statements:

1) "A person in an organization usually performs several roles and it may become a source of stress and overload."

2) "Street-level bureaucrats who deal with people treat them like numbers ignoring their unique problems and circumstances."

Ex. 3. Give your viewpoint on the following problems:

1) Imagine you are a lawyer who has to cancel an appointment to care for a sick child. Will you experience a role conflict? Will it become a source of stress for you? Explain what you feel to your family doctor or a colleague.

2) The job of policy entrepreneur is said to be both necessary and dangerous. Why? What can minimize the risks they take and the limits they push?

G. Writing

Write an essay explaining the following statement: "An organization that falls apart when individuals leave has not built an adequate structure of roles."

Imagine you are a street-level bureaucrat (for example, a social worker or a public school teacher). Write a brief essay on what makes your job complex and unpredictable.

Unit 5

Personnel Administration: