Исторический обзор государственного управления

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Large-scale administrative organization has existed from early times. The ancient empires of Egypt, Persia, Greece, Rome, China, and later the Holy Roman Empire as well as recent colonial empires of Britain, Spain, Russia, Portugal, and France – they all organized and maintained political rule over wide areas and large populations by the use of quite a sophisticated administrative apparatus and more or less skilled administrative functionaries.

The personal nature of that rule was very great. Everything depended on the emperor. The emperor in turn had to rely on the personal loyalty of his subordinates, who maintained themselves by the personal support from their underlings, down to rank-and file personnel on the fringes of the empire. The emperor carried an enormous work load reading or listening to petitions, policy arguments, judicial claims, appeals for favors, and the like in an attempt to keep the vast imperial machine functioning. It was a system of favoritism and patronage.

In a system based on personal preferment, a change of emperor disrupted the entire arrangements of government. Those who had been in favor might now be out of favor. Weak rulers followed strong rulers, foolish monarchs succeeded wise monarchs – but all were dependent on the army, which supplied the continuity that enabled the empire to endure so long. In the absence of institutional, bureaucratic procedures, government moved from stability to near anarchy and back again.

Modern administrative system is based on objective norms (such as laws, rules and regulations) rather than on favoritism It is a system of offices rather than officers. Loyalty is owed first of all to the state and the administrative organization. Members of the bureaucracy, or large, formal, complex organizations that appeared in the recent times, are chosen for their qualification rather than for their personal connections with powerful persons. When vacancies occur by death, resignation, or for other reasons, new qualified persons are selected according to clearly defined rules. Bureaucracy does not die when its members die.

ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЙ ОБЗОР ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ

Крупномасштабная административная организация существует с давних времен. Древние империи Египта, Персии, Греции, Рима, Китая, а позже Священной Римской империи, а также недавние колониальные империи Великобритании, Испании, России, Португалии и Франции - все они были организованы и поддерживали политическое господство в широких областях и над крупных населением за счет использования достаточно сложного административного аппарата и более или менее квалифицированных административных функционеров.

Личные характеристики значили очень много. Все зависело от императора. Император в свою очередь, должен был полагаться на личную преданность своих подчиненных, которые в свою очередь утверждали себя личной поддержкой со стороны своих подчиненных, вплоть до неприметных клерков на окраинах империи. Император совершал огромную работу, т.к. присутствовал при чтении или слушании прошения, участвовал в политических дискуссиях, судебных исках, обращениях о протекции, и тому подобное, пытаясь сохранить функционирование имперской машины. Это была система фаворитизма и покровительства.

В системе, основанной на личном продвижении по службе, смена императора могла сорвать целые механизмы власти. Те, кто был в фаворитах, мог попасть в немилость. Слабые правители следовали за сильными правителями, глупые монархи следовали за мудрыми - но все зависело и от армии, которая поддерживала преемственность, которая позволила империям жить так долго. При отсутствии институциональных, бюрократических процедур, правительство часто сменяло стабильность на анархию, а затем все возвращалось на круги своя.

Современная административная система основана на объективных нормах (например, законы, правила и положения), а не на фаворитизме. Это система офисов, а не должностных лиц. Лояльность обязана быть прежде всего к государству и административной организации. Члены бюрократии, или больших, официальных и сложных организаций, появившихся в последнее время, выбраны из-за их квалификации, а не из-за их личных связей с влиятельными людьми. Когда появляются вакансии из-за смерти, отставки, или по другим причинам, новые квалифицированные лица выбираются в соответствии с четко определенными правилами. Бюрократия не умирает, когда его члены умирают.

Post-reading Exercises

Language Study

Ex. 1. Match the words to their definitions:

1) patronage 2) favouritism 3) anarchy 4) rank and file 5) vacancy 6) functionary 7) underling 8) subordinate, n

a) a job which is not being done by anyone and which people can apply for; b) the ordinary members of an organization as opposed to the leaders or officers; c) a situation where nobody seems to pay attention to rules or laws; d) this person has an official administrative job in an organization, especially in a government or a political party; e) the practice of unfairly helping or supporting one person or group more than another; f) the support and money given by someone to a person or a group such as a charity;   g) someone, who has a less important position than you in the organization that you both work for; h) inferior in rank or status to someone else.

Ответы:

F

E

С

B

A

D

G

H

2. задание по грамматике:

Self Test I

I. Закончите предложение, вставив настоящее простое или настоящее длительное время, раскрыв скобки.

1. You’re breathing (breathe/are breathing) hard. Sit down and rest for a while.
2. Dolphins and whales are mammals. They breath air.
3. Fred has just left. He is going to his biology class right now.
4. He goesto biology class twice a week.
5. In our area, it rains a lot in March.
6. It is raining right now? And I don’t have my umbrella.
7. We are dancing. Is the music too loud for you?
8. We dance every day. It’s a good exercise.
9. The telephone is ringing. Could you answer it, please?
10. The telephone rings during dinner every evening.
11. Greg and Tim are sharing a house this semester, but Tim wants his own place soon.
12. Bill and Sue are very close. They share all their thoughts.
13. Warm air rises. Cool air falls.
14. Look at that balloon. It is rising very fast. Oops! I guess it popped. Now it is falling.
15. Karen is taking a shower. Can she call you right back?
16. She takes a shower in the morning after she exercises.

II. Поставьте слова из скобок в правильном порядке, чтобы получить вопросы.

1. (what time/you/get up/do?)

Mom: What time do you get up?

Marcie: I get up at about 7:00 on weekdays.

1. (exercise/do/you?)

Mom: Do you exercise?

Marcia: Yes, I do. I run every morning.

1. (you/when/eat/do/breakfast?)

Mom: When do you eat breakfast?

Marcia:I have early classes, so I usually eat at about 8:00.

1. (to school/do /walk/you?)

Mom: Do you walk to school?

Marcia:No, I don’t. I usually ride my bike.

1. (you/how long/do/stay/at school?)

Mom: How long do you stay at school?

Marcia:I stay until lunchtime. Then I come home and eat.

1. (go back/do/you/after lunch?)

Mom: Do you go back after lunch?

Marcia:Yes, I do. I go back and study in the library.

1. (you/have fun/do/ever?)

Mom: Do you ever have fun?

Marcia:Sure, I do. Ask me about my weekend schedule!

III. Закончите каждый диалог правильной формой глаголов из скобок.

1.A: I don’t understand (not understand) this lesson. Could you help me?

B: Sure. What’s the problem?

2.A:How's Trend today?

B: She is (be) much better. In fact, she doesn’t seem (not seem) sick at all.

3.A:That pizza looks (look) good.

B:It tastes (taste) great. In fact, I am eating (eat) my third slice right now.

4.A:Listen somebody is driving (drive) into the driveway.

B:. I don’t hear (not hear) anything

5.A: Let’s go over these verb tenses together.

B: I don’t want (not want) to study anymore. Besides, I know (know) them perfectly.

6.A:This is (be) a great movie.

B:I think (think) so too.

7.A:I’m sorry, but I don’t remember (not remember) your name.

B:My name’s Genya. What’s yours?

IV. Перепишите каждое предложение включив наречие.

1. John is a pleasure to have in class.

John is always a pleasure to have in class (always)

2. He pays attention. (Usually)

He usually pays attention.

3. He forgets his homework. (Rarely)

He rarely forgets his homework.

4. Our car doesn't start on cold mornings. (Often)

Our car often doesn't start on cold mornings.

5. It breaks down in traffic. (Sometimes)

Sometimes It breaks down in traffic.

V. Обведите нужное наречие для каждого предложения.

1. Fred is an airline reservation clerk. He gets to work at 4:00 P.M. every day.

He sometimes/always/never gets to work at 4:00.

2. He's only late about twice a year.

He's rarely/always/often late.

3. He and his co-workers have a meeting about four mornings a week.

They often/never/always have a meeting in the morning.

4. He doesn't call his friends in the afternoon because he doesn't have time.

He always/sometimes/nevercalls his friends in the afternoon.

5. By 7:30 every evening, he's hungry.

He's rarely/sometimes/always hungry by 7:30.

6. He eats dinner with his friend Carl about once a month.

He always/never/sometimes eats dinner with Carl.

7. He only skips dinner about once every two months.

He often/always/rarely skips dinner.

8. He stays late at work about three nights a week.

He rarely/often/never stays late at work.

VI. Закончите диалог, вставив настоящее простое или настоящее длительное время.

1. A: Are you getting ready for school? It’s almost 8:00.

B: Yes, I am. I am brushing my teeth right now.

A: How about Sue? She’s looking for her shoes.

2. A: Something smells good. Are you making pancakes?

B: No, I’m not.

A: What are we eating then?

B: Cereal and fruit.

3. A: I can’t find my book-bag. Do you know where it is?

B: Not, but I saw it in your room last night.

A: I’m in my room now, but I don’t see it.

4. A: This milk tastes awful. I think it is sour.

B: Have some juice instead. I’m putting two peanut-butter sandwiches in your lunch. Is that enough?

A: Sure.

5. A: Don’t pack anything for me. I am not hungry today.

B: Why not?

A: I have a stomachache.

B: Your head seems a little hot too. Maybe you’re sick.

6. A: No, I’m not. I feel nervous about my spelling test.

B: Oh, no! Look at the time. I think I am hearing the school bus.

A: Don’t worry. We are right now.

B: Bye. Have a great day.

VII. Закончите каждое предложение, используя повелительное наклонение в утвердительной или отрицательной форме

forget enjoy lock call have put

1. Please walk the dog in the morning and afternoon.
2. But lock her near the Wong’s house. She chases their cat.
3. Please lockthe back door before you go out. The key is in the door.
4. Also, to turn out the lights. We have light electricity bills.
5. Don’t put glass or newspaper the garbage. They go in the green bin. We recycle them.
6. Put the garbage on the sidewalk on Tuesday morning.
7. Call me if you have any problems.
8. But don’t call after 11:00. We go to bed early when we’re on vacation.
9. Have fun, and enjoy the house.